first set lets gooooooooooo
one way of thinking about psychology is to understand that it involves the study of ___
you (behavior of other people)
me (one’s own behavior)
us (how our behavior is affected by groups and social influences)
psychology:
the science of behavior and mental processes
Wilhelm Wundt
1832-1920
German philosopher
used STRUCTURALISM & INTROSPECTION
1879 established the world’s first lab dedicated to psychology
first person to call himself a psychologist
G. Stanley Hall
1844-1924
established first psychology laboratory in the United States
which was housed at Johns Hopkins University
founded the American Psychological Association (APA) & was it’s first president
structuralism:
a psychological theory that uses introspection
define the structure of the mind by breaking down mental experiences into their component parts
introspection:
inward focusing on mental experiences such as sensations or feelings
attempts to directly study consciousness by having people report on what they are consciously experiencing
William James
1842-1910
founded functionalism
generally recognized as the father of American psychology
trained as a medical doctor
Harvard psychologist
functionalism:
the school of psychology that focused on how behavior helps individuals adapt to demands placed upon them in the environment
examined the roles or functions of mental processes
why we do what we do
John Watson
1878-1958
studied behaviorism
believed that you can never observe another person’s mental process, consciousness, thoughts, or feelings
rejected introspection
believed environment molds the behavior of humans & animals
behaviorism:
the study of psychology that holds that it should limit itself to the study of overt, observable behavior
B. F. Skinner
1904-1990
studied how behavior is shaped by rewards and punishments (conditioning)
Max Wertheimer
1880-1943
gestalt psychology
on a train and noticed how it seemed as if the objects outside were moving with the train
believed the illusion was a reflection of higher-level processes in the brain that created a false perception of movement
two assistants
Wolfgang Kohler (1887-1967)
Hurt Koffka (1886-1941)
believed the “whole is greater than the sum of its parts”
rejected structuralism that the mental could be understood by breaking it down into component parts
gestalt psychology:
the school of psychology that holds that the brain structures our perceptions of the world in terms of meaningful patterns or wholes
Sigmund Freud
1856-1939
a therapist that used psychoanalysis
believed that the motives of our behavior involve primitive sexual and aggressive drives or instincts based upon our unconscious mind that is hidden away from our ordinary awareness of ourselves
early childhood experiences
we may do things without understanding the true motives that prompted these behaviors
psychodynamic perspective:
the view that behavior is influenced by the struggle between unconscious sexual or aggressive impulses and opposing forces that try to keep this threatening material out of consciousness
psychoanalysis:
focuses on uncovering and working through unconscious conflicts he believed were at the root of psychological problems / talk therapy
unconscious:
the part of the mind that lies outside the range of ordinary awareness and that contains primitive drives and instincts
what are the 6 major perspectives of psychology
behavioral
psychodynamic
humanistic
physiological
cognitive
sociocultural
behavioral perspective:
the belief that environmental influences determine behavior and that psychology should restrict itself to the study of observable behavior
social-cognitive theory:
a contemporary learning based model that emphasizes the roles of cognitive and environmental factors in determining behavior
behavior therapy:
involves the systematic application of the principles of learning
cognitive- behavioral therapy:
incorporates techniques for changing maladaptive thoughts as well as overt behaviors
psychodynamic perspective:
tend to place less emphasis on basic drives like sex and aggression than Freud did and more emphasis on processes of self-awareness, self-direction, and conscious choice
focus on our inner lives, fantasies, wishes, dreams, and hidden motives
psychological problems may be rooted in childhood that people may not be consciously aware of
humanistic psychology:
free will and conscious choice are essential aspects of the human experience
humanistic perspective
psychology should focus on conscious experiences even if those experiences are subjective and cannot be directly observed and scientifically measured
emphasizes the value of self- awareness and of becoming an authentic person by being true to oneself
“the third force” in psychology
rejects the views of behavioral and psychodynamic perspectives
physiological perspective:
examines relationships between biological processes and behavior
includes roles of heredity, hormones, and the nervous system
evolutionary psychology:
movement within modern psychology that applies principles derived from Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution to a wide range of behaviors
might be rooted in our genes, having been passed along from generations
cognitive perspective:
focuses on the processes by which we acquire knowledge
sociocultural perspective:
examine how behaviors and attitudes are shaped by social and cultural influences to which people are exposed
age ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, lifestyle, income, disabilities, discrimination, prejudice
basic research:
research that seeks to expand our knowledge even if it does not lead to benefits
applied research:
research intended to find solutions to specific problems
experimental psychologists:
apply experimental methods to the study of behavior and mental processes
comparative psychologists:
experimental psychologists who focus on the similarities and differences in behavior across different species
physiological psychologist:
biological psychologists
experimental psychologists who focus on understanding the biological bases of behavior
clinical psychologists:
evaluate and treat people with psychological disorders, such as depression and anxiety disorders
psychiatrists:
medical doctors who specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of mental or psychological disorders
counseling psychologist:
help people who have adjustment problems that are usually not as severe as the kinds of problems that clinical psychologists treat
school psychologists:
work in school systems, help children with academic, emotional, and behavioral problems and evaluate students for placement in special education programs
educational psychologists:
develop tests that measure intellectual ability or academic potential, help gear training approaches to students’ learning styles, and create ways of helping students reach their maximum academic potential
developmental psychologists:
study people’s physical, cognitive, social, and personality development throughout the life span
personality psychologists:
seek to understand the nature of personality; the cluster of psychological characteristics and behaviors that distinguish each of us as unique individuals and that account for the consistency of our behavior over time
social psychologists:
study how group or social influences affect behavior and attitudes
environmental psychologists:
study relationships between the physical environment and behavior
industrial/ organizational psychologists:
study people at work and the effects of organizational structure on productivity and work performance, and challenges posed by changes in the workplace
health psychologists:
study how such psychological factors as stress, lifestyle, and attitude affect physical health
consumer psychologists:
interested in understanding consumer behavior, why people purchase particular products and brands, attitudes towards products, ways of advertising, and music choice in stores
neuropsychologists:
study relationships between the brain and behavior
geropsychologists:
focus on psychological processes associated with aging
forensic psychologists:
work within the legal system to assist in jury cases, child custody cases, etc
sport psychologists:
apply psychological principles and techniques to sport and athletic competition
who was the first African American to receive a doctorate in psychology in the United States?
Francis Sumner
empirical approach:
a method of developing knowledge based on evaluating evidence gathered from experiments and careful observation
scientific method:
a method of inquiry involving careful observation and use of experimental methods
what are the steps in the scientfic method
develop a research questions
form a hypothesis
gather evidence and test
draw conclusions
hypothesis:
a precise prediction that can be tested through research
theory:
a formulation that accounts for relationships among observed events or experimental findings in ways that make them more understandable and predictable
variable:
a factor that varies in an experiment, such as dosage level or test scores
statistics:
branch of mathematics involving methods of tabulating and analyzing numerical data
replication:
the attempt to duplicate findings reported by others to determine whether they will occur again under the same experimental conditions
case study method:
an in-depth study of one or more individuals
survey method:
gathers information from target groups of people through the use of structured interviews or questionaires
structured interview:
a questioning technique that follows a preset series of questions in a specified order
questionaire:
a written set of questions or statements to which people can reply by marking responses on an answer form
population
represents the total group of people who are the subjects of interest
random sampling:
a technique whereby individuals are selected at random from a given population for participation in a sample
social desirability bias:
the tendency to respond to questions in a socially desirable manner
volunteer bias:
when people who volunteer to participate in a survey or research study have characteristics that make them unrepresentative of the population from which they were drawn
naturalistic observation method:
a method of research based on careful observation of behavior in natural habitats, environment, or settings,
coorelation method:
a research method used to examine relationships between variables, which are expressed in the form of a statistical measure called a correlation coefficient
correlation coefficient:
a statistical measure of association between two variables
correlation is not ________
causation
experimental method:
investigators directly explore cause-and effect relationships by manipulating certain variables
independent variable:
variable that is manipulated in a study
dependent variable:
the effects or outcomes of an experiment that are believed to be dependent on the values of the independent variables
control groups:
ensures the effects of an independent variable are not due to other factors
random assignment:
to place participants randomly in experimental groups or control groups
placebo:
an inert substance or condition that resembles the active treatment
placebo effects:
positive outcomes of an experiment resulting from a participants positive expectations about the treatment rather than the treatment itself
single-blind studies:
only the participants are kept in the dark
double-blind studies:
both the participants and the experimenters are uninformed on who received the actives and placebos
primes:
a stimulus or cue that affects a person’s subsequent behavior without the person being aware of its impact
ethics review committees:
committees that evaluated whether proposed studies meet ethical guidelines
informed consent:
agreement to participate in a study following disclosure of information about the purposes and nature of the study and it’s risks and benefits
critical thinking:
involves adopting a questioning attitude in which you weigh evidence carefully and apply thoughtful analysis in probing the claims and arguments of others
positive psychology:
directed towards the study of positive aspects of human experience, such as love, happiness, altruism, and hope