ch1 : flashcards

first set lets gooooooooooo

one way of thinking about psychology is to understand that it involves the study of ___

one way of thinking about psychology is to understand that it involves the study of ___

• you (behavior of other people)

• me (one’s own behavior)

• us (how our behavior is affected by groups and social influences)

psychology:

the science of behavior and mental processes

Wilhelm Wundt

• 1832-1920

• German philosopher

• used STRUCTURALISM & INTROSPECTION

• 1879 established the world’s first lab dedicated to psychology

• first person to call himself a psychologist

G. Stanley Hall

• 1844-1924

• established first psychology laboratory in the United States

  • which was housed at Johns Hopkins University

  • founded the American Psychological Association (APA) & was it’s first president

structuralism:

• a psychological theory that uses introspection

• define the structure of the mind by breaking down mental experiences into their component parts

introspection:

• inward focusing on mental experiences such as sensations or feelings

• attempts to directly study consciousness by having people report on what they are consciously experiencing

William James

• 1842-1910

• founded functionalism

• generally recognized as the father of American psychology

• trained as a medical doctor

• Harvard psychologist

functionalism:

• the school of psychology that focused on how behavior helps individuals adapt to demands placed upon them in the environment

• examined the roles or functions of mental processes

• why we do what we do

John Watson

• 1878-1958

• studied behaviorism

• believed that you can never observe another person’s mental process, consciousness, thoughts, or feelings

• rejected introspection

• believed environment molds the behavior of humans & animals

behaviorism:

the study of psychology that holds that it should limit itself to the study of overt, observable behavior

B. F. Skinner

• 1904-1990

• studied how behavior is shaped by rewards and punishments (conditioning)

Max Wertheimer

• 1880-1943

• gestalt psychology

• on a train and noticed how it seemed as if the objects outside were moving with the train

• believed the illusion was a reflection of higher-level processes in the brain that created a false perception of movement

• two assistants

  • Wolfgang Kohler (1887-1967)

  • Hurt Koffka (1886-1941)

• believed the “whole is greater than the sum of its parts”

  • rejected structuralism that the mental could be understood by breaking it down into component parts

gestalt psychology:

the school of psychology that holds that the brain structures our perceptions of the world in terms of meaningful patterns or wholes

Sigmund Freud

• 1856-1939

• a therapist that used psychoanalysis

• believed that the motives of our behavior involve primitive sexual and aggressive drives or instincts based upon our unconscious mind that is hidden away from our ordinary awareness of ourselves

• early childhood experiences

• we may do things without understanding the true motives that prompted these behaviors

psychodynamic perspective:

the view that behavior is influenced by the struggle between unconscious sexual or aggressive impulses and opposing forces that try to keep this threatening material out of consciousness

psychoanalysis:

focuses on uncovering and working through unconscious conflicts he believed were at the root of psychological problems / talk therapy

unconscious:

the part of the mind that lies outside the range of ordinary awareness and that contains primitive drives and instincts

what are the 6 major perspectives of psychology

• behavioral

• psychodynamic

• humanistic

• physiological

• cognitive

• sociocultural

behavioral perspective:

the belief that environmental influences determine behavior and that psychology should restrict itself to the study of observable behavior

social-cognitive theory:

a contemporary learning based model that emphasizes the roles of cognitive and environmental factors in determining behavior

behavior therapy:

involves the systematic application of the principles of learning

cognitive- behavioral therapy:

incorporates techniques for changing maladaptive thoughts as well as overt behaviors

psychodynamic perspective:

• tend to place less emphasis on basic drives like sex and aggression than Freud did and more emphasis on processes of self-awareness, self-direction, and conscious choice

• focus on our inner lives, fantasies, wishes, dreams, and hidden motives

• psychological problems may be rooted in childhood that people may not be consciously aware of

humanistic psychology:

free will and conscious choice are essential aspects of the human experience

humanistic perspective

• psychology should focus on conscious experiences even if those experiences are subjective and cannot be directly observed and scientifically measured

• emphasizes the value of self- awareness and of becoming an authentic person by being true to oneself

• “the third force” in psychology

• rejects the views of behavioral and psychodynamic perspectives

physiological perspective:

• examines relationships between biological processes and behavior

• includes roles of heredity, hormones, and the nervous system

evolutionary psychology:

• movement within modern psychology that applies principles derived from Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution to a wide range of behaviors

• might be rooted in our genes, having been passed along from generations

cognitive perspective:

focuses on the processes by which we acquire knowledge

sociocultural perspective:

• examine how behaviors and attitudes are shaped by social and cultural influences to which people are exposed

• age ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, lifestyle, income, disabilities, discrimination, prejudice

basic research:

research that seeks to expand our knowledge even if it does not lead to benefits

applied research:

research intended to find solutions to specific problems

experimental psychologists:

apply experimental methods to the study of behavior and mental processes

comparative psychologists:

experimental psychologists who focus on the similarities and differences in behavior across different species

physiological psychologist:

• biological psychologists

• experimental psychologists who focus on understanding the biological bases of behavior

clinical psychologists:

evaluate and treat people with psychological disorders, such as depression and anxiety disorders

psychiatrists:

medical doctors who specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of mental or psychological disorders

counseling psychologist:

help people who have adjustment problems that are usually not as severe as the kinds of problems that clinical psychologists treat

school psychologists:

work in school systems, help children with academic, emotional, and behavioral problems and evaluate students for placement in special education programs

educational psychologists:

develop tests that measure intellectual ability or academic potential, help gear training approaches to students’ learning styles, and create ways of helping students reach their maximum academic potential

developmental psychologists:

study people’s physical, cognitive, social, and personality development throughout the life span

personality psychologists:

seek to understand the nature of personality; the cluster of psychological characteristics and behaviors that distinguish each of us as unique individuals and that account for the consistency of our behavior over time

social psychologists:

study how group or social influences affect behavior and attitudes

environmental psychologists:

study relationships between the physical environment and behavior

industrial/ organizational psychologists:

study people at work and the effects of organizational structure on productivity and work performance, and challenges posed by changes in the workplace

health psychologists:

study how such psychological factors as stress, lifestyle, and attitude affect physical health

consumer psychologists:

interested in understanding consumer behavior, why people purchase particular products and brands, attitudes towards products, ways of advertising, and music choice in stores

neuropsychologists:

study relationships between the brain and behavior

geropsychologists:

focus on psychological processes associated with aging

forensic psychologists:

work within the legal system to assist in jury cases, child custody cases, etc

sport psychologists:

apply psychological principles and techniques to sport and athletic competition

who was the first African American to receive a doctorate in psychology in the United States?

Francis Sumner

empirical approach:

a method of developing knowledge based on evaluating evidence gathered from experiments and careful observation

scientific method:

a method of inquiry involving careful observation and use of experimental methods

what are the steps in the scientfic method

1. develop a research questions

2. form a hypothesis

3. gather evidence and test

4. draw conclusions

hypothesis:

a precise prediction that can be tested through research

theory:

a formulation that accounts for relationships among observed events or experimental findings in ways that make them more understandable and predictable

variable:

a factor that varies in an experiment, such as dosage level or test scores

statistics:

branch of mathematics involving methods of tabulating and analyzing numerical data

replication:

the attempt to duplicate findings reported by others to determine whether they will occur again under the same experimental conditions

case study method:

an in-depth study of one or more individuals

survey method:

gathers information from target groups of people through the use of structured interviews or questionaires

structured interview:

a questioning technique that follows a preset series of questions in a specified order

questionaire:

a written set of questions or statements to which people can reply by marking responses on an answer form

population

represents the total group of people who are the subjects of interest

random sampling:

a technique whereby individuals are selected at random from a given population for participation in a sample

social desirability bias:

the tendency to respond to questions in a socially desirable manner

volunteer bias:

when people who volunteer to participate in a survey or research study have characteristics that make them unrepresentative of the population from which they were drawn

naturalistic observation method:

a method of research based on careful observation of behavior in natural habitats, environment, or settings,

coorelation method:

a research method used to examine relationships between variables, which are expressed in the form of a statistical measure called a correlation coefficient

correlation coefficient:

a statistical measure of association between two variables

correlation is not ________

causation

experimental method:

investigators directly explore cause-and effect relationships by manipulating certain variables

independent variable:

variable that is manipulated in a study

dependent variable:

the effects or outcomes of an experiment that are believed to be dependent on the values of the independent variables

control groups:

ensures the effects of an independent variable are not due to other factors

random assignment:

to place participants randomly in experimental groups or control groups

placebo:

an inert substance or condition that resembles the active treatment

placebo effects:

positive outcomes of an experiment resulting from a participants positive expectations about the treatment rather than the treatment itself

single-blind studies:

only the participants are kept in the dark

double-blind studies:

both the participants and the experimenters are uninformed on who received the actives and placebos

primes:

a stimulus or cue that affects a person’s subsequent behavior without the person being aware of its impact

ethics review committees:

committees that evaluated whether proposed studies meet ethical guidelines

informed consent:

agreement to participate in a study following disclosure of information about the purposes and nature of the study and it’s risks and benefits

critical thinking:

involves adopting a questioning attitude in which you weigh evidence carefully and apply thoughtful analysis in probing the claims and arguments of others

positive psychology:

directed towards the study of positive aspects of human experience, such as love, happiness, altruism, and hope