Unit 3 Development and Learning

Sensorimotor Stage

The stage in Piaget's theory from birth to about 2 years during which infants know the world mostly in terms of sensory impressions and motor activities.

Object Permanence

The awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived.

Egocentrism

The preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view.

Preoperational Stage

The stage in Piaget’s theory from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age during which a child learns to use language.

Conservation

The principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects.

Theory of Mind

People's ideas about their own and others' mental states.

Concrete Operational Stage

The stage of cognitive development from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age.

Primary Sex Characteristics

The body structures that make sexual reproduction possible.

Formal Operational Stage

The stage of cognitive development during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts.

Stranger Anxiety

Fear of strangers that infants commonly display.

Attachment

An emotional tie with another person.

Critical Period

An optimal period shortly after birth for proper development.

Imprinting

The process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period.

Adolescence

The transition period from childhood to adulthood.

Puberty

The period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing.

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Nonreproductive sexual characteristics.

Menarche

The first menstrual period.

Emerging Adulthood

A period from the late teens to early twenties bridging the gap between dependence and independence.

Menopause

The time of natural cessation of menstruation.

Learned Helplessness

The hopelessness learned when unable to avoid repeated aversive events.

Language

Our spoken, written, or signed words to communicate meaning.

Phoneme

The smallest distinctive sound unit in language.

Morpheme

The smallest unit that carries meaning in a language.

Grammar

A system of rules enabling communication in a language.

Babbling Stage

The stage of speech development where infants spontaneously utter sounds.

One-Word Stage

The speech development stage where children mostly speak in single words.

Telegraphic Speech

Early speech stage where children use mostly nouns and verbs.

Aphasia

Impairment of language due to brain damage.

Broca's Area

Controls language expression directing muscle movements involved in speech.

Wernicke's Area

Involved in language comprehension and expression.

Linguistic Determinism

Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think.

Visual Cliff

A laboratory device for testing depth perception.

Stimulus

Any event or situation that evokes a response.

Classical Conditioning

A type of learning in which one learns to link two stimuli.

Neutral Stimuli (NS)

A stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.

Unconditioned Response (UR)

The unlearned, naturally occurring response.

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

Stimulus that unconditionally triggers a response.

Conditioned Response (CR)

The learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

Originally irrelevant stimulus that triggers a conditioned response after association.

Acquisition

The initial stage of linking a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus.

Higher-Order Conditioning

When the conditioned stimulus in one experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus.

Extinction

The diminishing of a conditioned response.

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response.

Generalization

The tendency for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

Discrimination

The learned ability to distinguish between conditioned and unconditioned stimuli.

Operant Conditioning

Learning where behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer.

Positive Reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli.

Negative Reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping negative stimuli.

Primary Reinforcer

An innately reinforcing stimulus.

Conditioned Reinforcer

A stimulus gaining reinforcing power through association.

Reinforcement Schedule

A pattern defining how often a desired response will be reinforced.

Continuous Reinforcement

Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.

Partial Reinforcement

Reinforcing a response only part of the time.

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

Reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.

Variable-Ratio Schedule

Reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

Fixed-Interval Schedule

Reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

Variable-Interval Schedule

Reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

Punishment

An event that decreases the behavior that it follows.

Cognitive Map

A mental representation of the layout of one's environment.

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive.

Stability vs. Change

Personality traits often remain consistent or change over time.

Continuous vs. Discontinuous Stages of Development

Gradual vs. distinct stages in development.

Nature vs. Nurture

The debate about genetic vs. environmental influences.

Maternal Illness

Health conditions attributed to and/or aggravated by pregnancy.

Genetic Mutation

Permanent change in an organism's DNA sequence.

Developmental Norms

Standards measuring a child's developmental progress.

Rooting Reflex

A newborn reflex where babies search for a nipple when touched on the cheek.

Spermarche

The first ejaculation in males.

Adulthood

The life stage following adolescence, marked by responsibility.

Sex

The biologically influenced characteristics defining male and female.

Jean Piaget

Psychologist known for the theory of cognitive development stages.

Reversibility

The cognitive ability to reverse a sequence of actions.

Abstract Thinking

Understanding complex concepts not directly linked to physical objects.

Hypothetical Thinking

Reasoning through imagined scenarios.

Lev Vygotsky

Known for the sociocultural theory emphasizing social interaction in cognitive development.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Range of tasks performed with guidance that the learner cannot yet do independently.

Scaffolding

Vygotsky's concept of temporary support for development.

Dementia

A syndrome marked by cognitive decline impacting daily functioning.

Syntax

The rules governing sentence formation in a language.

Semantics

The study of meaning in language.

Ecological Systems Theory

A theory detailing the influence of social environments on development.

Microsystem

The immediate environment influencing a person's development.

Mesosystem

Connections between different parts of a person's immediate environment.

Exosystem

External environments that influence development indirectly.

Macrosystem

Cultural values and broad societal influences on development.

Chronosystem

Experiences endured throughout a lifetime influencing development.

Authoritarian Parenting

A strict parenting style demanding obedience with little warmth.

Permissive Parenting

A lenient parenting style allowing for high degrees of freedom.

Authoritative Parenting

A balance of responsiveness and demandingness in parenting.

Secure Attachment

A healthy attachment style characterized by trust and comfort.

Insecure Attachment

Attachment patterns displayed through anxiety or avoidance behaviors.

Avoidant Attachment

An insecure style avoiding intimacy and closeness.

Anxious Attachment

An insecure style characterized by fear of abandonment.

Disorganized Attachment

A confusing attachment style resulting from inconsistent caregiving.

Separation Anxiety

Excessive fear or distress when separated from a major attachment figure.

Harry Harlow Monkey Study

Experiments demonstrating the importance of comfort in attachment development.

Parallel Play

Children playing alongside each other without interaction.

Pretend Play

Imitative play involving imagination and scenario creation.

Personal Fables

Adolescent belief in their unique experiences, leading to feelings of invulnerability.

Imaginary Audience

Believing others are closely watching and evaluating one's behavior.