psych notes - test 3

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steps for storing memory

  1. encoding

  2. storage

  3. retrieval

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encoding

  • Take in external stimuli and create internal memory

  • Not super accurate because our memory is unreliable

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engram

Mythical place where a specific memory is stored in the brain

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storage

Where we store our memories - no specific part of the brain

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retrieval

Retrieving memories from storage and bringing them to consciousness

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weak levels of processing

  • structural

  • phonemic

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structural processing

  • Focus on the visual components of what you are trying to remember

  • Uses the occipital lobe

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phonemic processing

  • Focus on the sound of the word

  • Uses the temporal lobe

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higher levels of processing

  • semantic

  • organizational

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semantic processing

  • Focus on the meaning of what you are trying to remember

  • Uses the frontal lobe

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organizational processing

  • Focus on how different stimuli fit together

  • Uses the frontal lobe

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Craig and Tulving, 1972

  • Have participants remember a long list of words and give them questions to consider - is the word uppercase/lowercase (structural); does the word have a “th” sound in it (phonemic); is this thing alive? (semantic)

  • Most successful at remembering words when the questions were semantic

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ways to improve encoding

  • encoding specificity principle

  • elaboration

  • dual-coding theory

  • self-referential encoding

  • motivation to remember

  • pegwords

  • method of loci

  • chunking

  • spacing/testing effect

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encoding specificity principle

  • Best way to encode/recall a memory is to use the same sense organs

  • Ex: encode something orally thru a hearing cue

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elaboration

  • Doing more semantic and organizational encoding

  • Build on information; add details to encoding

  • Creating stronger memory during encoding process

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dual-coding theory

  • Better to encode information using multiple sense modalities

  • Ex: incorporate both visual and auditory encoding - can fall back on type of encoding if other one fails

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self-referential encoding

Connect information that you are trying to remember to yourself

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cocktail party phenomenon

  • We care so much about ourselves that we are always looking to hear our name

  • If we hear our name, it will draw our attention no matter the background

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motivation to remember

Ex: need to bring something somewhere, put it with other things so that you remember → don’t even end up needing additional things because it’s the first thing you remember

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pegwords

creating mental associations between two concrete objects in a one-to-one fashion

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method of loci

Take a location/path that you are familiar with and place things that you need to remember along that path

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chunking

Turn a lot of information into less information

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spacing/testing effect

  • Space out encoding = able to remember info better

  • Space out studying = more successful when it comes to exam

  • Cramming = run out of resources

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Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory

  • Information moves through bins through control processes

  • Have three bins for memory

    • sensory memory

    • short-term memory

    • long-term memory

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capacity (Atkinson-Shiffrin model)

how much information can fit

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duration (Atkinson-Shiffrin model)

how long info will stay

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sensory memory

  • First bin that memory goes through

  • Primarily focuses on sense information

  • Capacity

    • A lot of information can fit

  • Duration

    • Does not stay there for long

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Sperling, 1960 (testing sensory memory)

  • Flash grids of letters to participants for a very short amount of time 

  • Ask for full report (how many letters did you see) or partial report (1st, 2nd, or 3rd row)

  • Would hear a high tone for 1st row, middle tone for 2nd row, and low tone for 3rd row

  • Participants would be able to get ½ of the information that was shown to them for full report

  • Participants would be able to get all of the information that was shown to them for partial report

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short-term memory

  • Capacity

    • Smaller capacity than sensory

    • Miller 7 ± 2

      • the number of objects an average human can hold in working memory is 7 ± 2

    • Ex: get 12 items and remember 5-9 of them

  • Duration

    • Longer than sensory memory

    • Still short

    • Between 30 seconds to a minute

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long-term memory

  • Capacity

    • Limitless

  • Duration

    • Limitless

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Procedural (long-term memory)

  • Muscle memory

    • How to do things

  • Fairly effortless

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Declarative (long-term memory)

  • Memory you are putting into words

  • More effort

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semantic (declarative memory)

  • factual information that isn’t tied to learning

  • Ex: what is a car?

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episodic (declarative memory)

  • Memory for events

  • Ex: last birthday, what I had for breakfast

  • Can become semantic once you forget how you learned it

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Autobiographical memory

  • Semantic self-information and episodic self-information

  • Memory about yourself

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HSAM

  • Highly superior autobiographical memory

  • Able to remember virtually every episodic event of their lives

  • Does not relate to short-term memory

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prospective memory

  • Remembering something for the future

  • Ex: remembering to take a medication or turn off the stove after cooking

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retrospective memory

  • memory for the past

  • Learning a list of 10 words and then recalling the words 5 minutes later

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Alan Baddeley

came up with theory of working memory

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Related to working memory

  • maintenance rehearsal

  • elaborative rehearsal

  • visuospatial sketchpad

  • phonological loop

  • episodic buffer

  • benefits

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maintenance rehearsal

  • Rote repetition to remember things

  • Keep information in short-term memory

  • Ex: repeating phone number until the number is entered into the phone to make the call

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elaborative rehearsal

  • Build on information to move to long-term memory

  • Typically more successful

  • Ex: someone’s name is Sandy, make an association between that name and a sandy beach

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visuospatial sketchpad

  • Respond to both visual and spatial information

  • Ex: watching someone else dancing and trying to learn the moves

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Phonological loop

auditory and language information

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central executive

  • guide resources and attention

  • Ex: talking and driving a car at the same time; have to decide which parts of brain to use

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episodic buffer

  • Keeps information in sequence

  • Collaboration between visuospatial sketchpad and phonological loop

  • Ex: need to know order of numbers in phone number for the info to be important

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consolidation

turn short-term memory into stable long-term memory

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hippocampus

without a healthy ____________, you cannot create long-term memories

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REM

Phase of our sleeping when we are in deep level of sleep and body is paralyzed

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reconsolidation

Take information from long-term memory, bring it to short-term memory, then bring it back to long-term memory

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implicit retrieving memory

  • Unconscious, effortless retrieval

  • Basal ganglia

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explicit retrieving memory

  • Conscious, effortful memory

  • hippocampus and prefrontal cortex

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state-dependent retrieval

  • Emotional state that we are in at retrieval influences the information that we retrieve

  • Ex: in a fight with a friend, remember every time they have made you angry

  • Emotional state acts as an additional memory cue

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associative network

  • How we store a lot of information in our brain

  • Organization of information in long term memory

  • Activating one component makes it easier to access other components

  • Ex: thinking about bacon also makes us think of other breakfast foods

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schema

  • Knowledge structure

  • Shortcuts that our brain uses when processing information

  • Ex: if someone asks what you had for breakfast 3 weeks ago, remember what you usually have for breakfast, say that’s what you ate since it fits within ______

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recall

  • Asking you to retrieve memory with none to few cues

  • Harder task but more confident in memory

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recognition

  • Giving a lot of codes/cues to help guide retrieval

  • Easier task but opening yourself up to chance

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relearning

  • How long does it take you to relearn a task that you’ve already learned

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Testing memory

  • how we determine memory is successful

  • recall

  • recognition

  • relearning

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retrograde amnesia

  • Have an inability to retrieve old information

  • Fairly rare phenomenon

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anterograde amnesia

  • Have an inability to form new memories

  • More common

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serial positioning effect

More likely to remember info depending on when it was presented to us

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primacy (serial positioning effect)

  • Remember information presented to us first

  • Happens because devote more resources to remember information therefore creating stronger memory

  • Stays relevant as time passes because it is stable

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recency (serial positioning effect)

  • Remember information presented to us last

  • Happens because the information is still in our short-term memory

  • Disappears as time passes

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selective attention

  • Focusing on a particular thing

  • Remember information that we care more about

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Jennifer Thompson and Ronald Cotton

Jennifer falsely accused Ronald of sexual assault and he was falsely imprisoned

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own race bias

Better at discriminating between members of our own race rather than members of a different race

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source monitoring

  • Ability to remember where you heard information from

  • ex of inability: incorrectly recalling a conversation that occurred in a dream as reality

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cryptoamnesia

  • Accidental plagiarism

  • Get a thought and don’t remember where it came from so you believe that it was your own thought even though you just forgot that someone else came up with it first

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processing errors

  • Processing stimuli incorrectly

  • Encoding memory incorrectly

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tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

  • Know the information but at the moment failing to retrieve it

  • Temporary issue with retrieval

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Ineffective encoding

  • Unable to accurately recall information

  • Get distracted when first learning information and not able to remember later on

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decay/transience

  • memory fades over time

  • forget useless details

  • Ex: don’t remember everyday, only special days

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retrieval failure

  • Remember information, store information, at the time you have to remember it, you can’t

  • ex: study for a test, remember it while studying, then don’t know the term at the time of the test

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proactive interference

  • Old information is interfering with new information

  • Ex: know someone by an old name, unable to remember new name they go by

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retroactive interference

  • New information is interfering with old information

  • Ex: know someone by a new name, unable to remember old name they go by

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suggestibility

  • How open you are to changing your memory

  • ex: “remember that time we went to the fair together” “omg yeah totally” (you don’t remember at all but you convince yourself you do)

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bias

  • Remember information that matches our beliefs and expectations

  • More likely to forget information that goes against beliefs and expectations

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Persistence

  • Issue related to PTSD

  • Persistently recalling a memory and persistently reconsolidating that memory

    • Opening it up to more change

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Learning styles

  • have good evidence beneath them but aren’t completely accurate

  • auditory, visual, verbal, reading and writing, kinesthetic

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synaptic pruning

brain removes neurons and synapses that it doesn’t need

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associative learning

Learn by pairing things together

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classical conditioning

  • Related to more reflexive/automatic behaviors

  • when you hear a sound, you want food

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operational conditioning

  • Related to conscious/effortful behaviors

  • ex: get a reward for completing assignment

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Neutral Stimuli (Classical conditioning)

not the desired response/different response

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Unconditioned stimuli (classical conditioning)

  • Causes the natural reflexive response

  • Put food in front of dogs - they naturally salivate

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conditioned stimulus (classical conditioning)

Neutral stimulus becomes this stimulus through repeated pairing

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unconditioned response (classical conditioning)

Natural reflexive response that the unconditioned stimulus elicits

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conditioned response (classical conditioning)

Learned response that the conditioned stimulus elicits

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Acquisition (classical conditioning)

  • Time period when learning is occuring

  • Time period when neutral stimulus is paired with the unconditioned stimulus

    • Ex: pairing bell with food in Pavlov experiment

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extinction (classical conditioning)

  • Time period when the organism stops responding to the conditioned stimulus

  • Learning that conditioned stimulus means nothing

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spontaneous recovery (classical conditioning)

  • Happens after extinction

  • Organism has stopped responding to conditioned stimulus but randomly starts responding again

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generalization (classical conditioning)

  • Respond to a stimulus as if it is the conditioned stimulus

    • If the dogs salivate at a green light, then they believe that the green light is like the bell

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discrimination (classical conditioning)

  • Recognize that a new stimulus is a new stimulus so they won’t respond

    • If the dogs do not salivate at a green light, then they differentiate the light from the bell

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Taste aversion (classical conditioning)

Occurs when you get a stomach issue after eating a certain food; the next time you’re presented with the food, you get nauseous

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higher order conditioning (classical conditioning)

Conditioned stimulus can begin to act as an unconditioned stimulus for a new round of learning

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latent inhibition (classical conditioning)

Previous learning is interfering with new learning

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renewal effect (classical conditioning)

  • Learning and extinction happen in different environments

  • When put into the original learning environment, learning comes back to the original context

  • Ex: Child learns they can run at home; they can’t run at school; go back home and run again

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Thorndike’s law of effect

If positive consequences happen after an action, then the action is likely to repeat

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reinforcement (operant conditioning)

  • trying to increase a behavior

  • ex: praise a child after they put away their toys away