Topic 5: UK’s evolving human landscape

GCSE geography edexcel

Settlement

A place of any size, where people live

Rural

Sparsely populated areas ie small towns, villages, farmland and open countryside

Urban

Densely populated areas ie large towns, cities and conurbations

Population density

The number of people who inhabit a given area. Measured in people per km²

Age structure

The proportion of individuals in each age group within a population

Economic activity

Actions that involve the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services

Metropolis

A capital or chief city of a region/state

Conurbation

An extended urban area compromising several towns/ cities

Population density in urban uk

- High, over approx 1000 people per km²

- urban areas in SE (London) and NW England (Manchester), Midlands and Glasgow/ Edinburgh

Population density in rural uk

- Low, typically less than 250 people per km²

- Rural areas in SW and North England and particularly central Wales and Scottish Highlands

Age Structure in urban uk

- Youthful

- Many young adults (largest cohort 25-29)

- Inward migration for employment and education, plus higher birth rates

- outward migration of older people for higher quality of life in rural areas

Age structure in rural uk

- Ageing

- Many older people (largest cohort 60-64)

- Outward migration of the young for education and employment, plus lower birth rates

- Inward retirement migration

Economic activities in urban uk

- wide range employment, often high skilled

- Dominated by tertiary - offices, corporate headquarters, retail, leisure, public sector (education, health etc)

- Declining secondary industry

Economic activities in rural uk

- Primary industry in decline - farming, fishing, mining

- Tertiary - leisure and tourism- typically seasonal, low skill, low pay

- Rise in home-working due to improved internet access and large potential for renewable energy employment

Settlement types in urban uk

- Larger settlements

- Metropolis - London

- Conurbations - Greater Manchester, Merseyside

- Cities - Sheffield, Bristol etc

Settlement types in rural uk

- Smaller settlements

- Market towns - Knutsford, Northwich

- Villages/ hamlets - Styal, Dunham Massey

- Farmsteads - individual buildings

UK and EU policies to reduce inequalities in the UK

- The EUs European Regional Development Fund - £2.6 billion. The EU invests in businesses in poorer regions to help them grow

- Enterprise Zones - tax cuts to attract businesses to specific regions, plus super fast broadband

Migration

The long term movement of people within or between countries

International migrant

A person who migrates between countries

Retirement migration

The long term movement of retired individuals

National migrant

A person who migrates within a country

Emigration

The act of leaving an area to live elsewhere

Immigration

The act of entering an area to live there

Rural-to-urban migration

The long term movement of individuals from rural to urban areas

Explain two reasons why the rural population structure has changed between 2001 and 2011

- People who work in cities often move to rural areas when they retire for a higher quality of life therefore reducing the amount of older people in urban areas thus lower birth rates in rural areas.

- Younger people who grow up in rural areas tend to move to urban areas for education and employment therefore reducing the amount of younger people in rural areas thus higher birth rates in urban areas.

North-to-south drift

The southwards migration of people in search of higher skilled, better paid jobs

Urban-urban migration

Movements between towns / cities

Counter urbanisation

Urban -to-rural movement of economically active to improve their quality of life

Causes of rural-urban migration

- often undertaken by young people leaving their homes in search of job opportunities in urban areas

- A perception that destinations have job opportunities with higher pay, cheaper housing and a better social life

Impacts of rural-urban migration

- results in a youthful population and increased demand for services that they seek including leisure facilities

- Migration to cities increases pop density and puts pressure on services

Typical destinations of rural-urban migration

- include major cities e.g London, Manchester

Fact and figure for rural-urban migration

- In 2014, 25% of people living in Inner London were aged 25-34 compared with 13% in the rest of England.

Causes of retirement migration

- involves older people who decide to retire to a different part of the UK

- perception that destinations for this form of migration have a slower pace of life, lower crime rates and a greater sense of community

Impacts of retirement migration

- Elderly migrants will push up house prices which can make accommodation unaffordable for lower, earning young adults

- results in an ageing population and an associated increase in pressure on health services

- services specific to older people such as chiropodists, bingo halls and tearooms may flourish

Typical destinations of retirement migration

- Include SW England (Cornwall, Devon, Dorset)

Causes of international migration

- involves the movement of people from outside the UK predominantly for economic reasons

- The UK government encouraged migrants from former British colonies after WW2 to fill skills shortages in transport, health care and industry

- After EU growth in 2004, many migrants arrived in search of better paid jobs in a wide range of areas including farming and services

- Until 2004, most international migrants arrived in urban areas seeking jobs in manufacturing and services

Impacts of international migration

- Migrants often introduce their home cultures such as cuisine and religious practices which boosts multiculturalism

- Migration to cities increases pop density and puts pressure on services

- As many migrants are young adults, this may increase the number of children born and therefore the need for schools many grow

Fact and figures for international migration

- Nowadays migration is occurring in a large scale and much of it is temporary, in 2021, the UK net immigration was estimated at 339,000

Immigration policy

- the current UK gov policy is to reduce the level of net migration to 100,000 people per year

The Clark Fisher Model

Model shows the changes in employment structures and their relative importance as countries develop over time

Clark-Fisher model - pre-industrial phase

- Primary sector dominant but declines over time

- Secondary and Tertiary is low

Due to small scale subsistence agriculture and low tech

Early mechanisation means declines in primary sector

Clark-Fisher model - Industrial phase

- Secondary sector becomes dominant

- primary decreases

- Tertiary grows

Due to improvements in transport and development of factory technologies which increases secondary industry

Increased food imports mean less agriculture therefore reduced primary industry

Clark-Fisher model - post-industrial phase

- Tertiary becomes dominant

- Primary and secondary decline

- Quaternary emerges

Due to foreign imports which causes decline of secondary industry

New technologies result in quaternary

Increases wealth increase demand for services increasing tertiary sector

Economic changes in NE England

- in 1947 the number of coal miners reduced from 108,000 to 55 by 1994 due to mines closing and reduced demand for the fuel and cheaper foreign imports

- in 1971 40% of people worked in the secondary industry but fell to 10% in 2011 due to increased foreign competition and labour costs.

- However, number of enterprise zones created by the gov where new companies can benefit from cheap land and reduced taxes.

- growth of tertiary has kept unemployment levels low but there is concern that these new jobs are typically low paid, low skilled and often only offer temporary contracts.

- 3% of UK economic output

Economic changes in SE England

- agriculture is highly productive and profitable although only employs a small proportion of the workforce

- compared to the national trend for decline the secondary industry is growing with oil refineries in Southampton and many electronics and engineering jobs along the M4 corridor.

- tertiary and quaternary industry are prospering with a wide range of employers in the financial and business sectors

- SEs closeness to foreign markets, such as the Channel Tunnel and Europe and good transport links have encouraged the economic growth.

- proximity to London means a wealthy market for products and services and a highly skilled workforce, which is particularly important for quaternary and some tertiary economic activities

- 15% of UK economic output

Impacts of industrial decline in North East England

- 10.3% unemployment

- Average weekly earnings, £455

- Average house price £145,000

- Relatively low standard of living

- Social deprivation associated with lack of wealth

Impacts of industrial growth in South East England

- 6% unemployment

- Average weekly earnings, £556

- Average house price £425,000 (London)

- High standard of living

- Life expectancy is 80.0 for males and 83.8 for females which is the highest in the UK.

Describe two reasons why the number of people employed in the primary sector has declined in the UK

- agriculture has become very highly mechanise and computerised. Far fewer people are now needed to farm than in the past.

- The reduction in mining in the UK. When coal was the UKs main source of energy mining employed many thousands of people however, as the UK moved to oil and gas and now towards renewables, the demand for coal reduced. Cheap sources of coal from emerging and developing countries were also used instead of UK coal.

Privatisation

The sale of state owned assets, e.g. transport systems, postal services etc to profit-making businesses

Free trade

International trade without restrictions, such as tariffs and quotas

Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)

Overseas investment made by transnational corporations (TNCs)

Benefits of privatisation

- reduction in operating costs for government, and therefore reduction in taxes

- Some argue an increase in quality of services due to more innovation such as new technologies

- Government earn revenue through initial sale of service

Costs of privatisation

- companies may prioritise profits over social benefits, e.g. price rises

- Government loses long-term revenue

Benefits of free trade

- promotion of free trade in the UK, allows reduced price of goods because tariffs (taxes on imports) aren't paid

- UK becomes attractive place for overseas companies to invest creating jobs and tax revenue

- Free-trade deals help UK companies to expand into other large economies e.g. EU, US, China

Costs of free trade

- There is less protection for UK businesses because gov can't apply tariffs (taxes on imports): if UK companies are uncompetitive they can go out of business

Benefits of foreign direct investment

- Increased tax revenue and jobs created e.g. car manufacturing - employs 100,000 people

- strong reputation in research and development and education meaning other companies also want to invest

Costs of foreign direct investment

- Tax incentives are needed to ensure investment doesn't go elsewhere - reduced revenue?

- Potential removal of profit from UK

Adv of TNCs in uk economy

- over £1 trillion has been invested by foreign companies into the UK, generating thousands of new jobs

- foreign companies bring new tech

- TNCs invest in infrastructure e.g new roads

Disadv of TNCs in uk economy

- TNCs can outcompete UK companies due to their massive economies of scale

- TNCs are able to reduce their tax liability on sales in the UK by setting up their HQ in low or zero tax countries

TNCs are able to reduce the amount of tax they pay on their sales in the UK by setting up HQ in low tax countries. Why is this a disadvantage?

It is a disadv as although TNCs may earn lots of money of its revenue from its UK customers, very little of this revenue comes back to the UK government in tax. This reduces the amount of money the gov has for its spending on things like education, health etc. It also makes it harder for UK companies to compete with TNCs because the UK companies pay higher taxes than TNCs which reduces profit.

Globalisation

The process by which trade and investment build more connections between countries

Manchester is at an altitude of ... above sea level

39m

Examples of rivers in Manchester

River Mersey/ Medlock

River Irwell

Manchester is in the ... of England

North- West

Manchester is ... km ... of London

262 km north-north-west of London

Manchester is ...km ... of the nearest coastline which is on the ... sea

49km east of the nearest coastline which is on the Irish Sea

Manchester is ...km ... of the nearest upland which is called the ...

20km West of the nearest upland area which is called the Pennines

Re-urbanisation

The movement of people, often young professionals back into city centres as a result of investment and regeneration

Studentification

When large number of students move into a particular area

CBD

Central business district

Description of the CBD in Manchester, examples

- Parts of Manchester's central business district have new offices, apartments, restaurants, bars and improved landscape public spaces. This is called re-generation

- Castle field, Spinningfields

Description of the inner city in Manchester, examples

- Most of Manchesters lowest quality housing is in the inner city e.g Clayton, Cheetham

- Movement of low income immigrant and student groups into the available, low costing housing in inner city areas, Rusholme (Middle Eastern and Pakistani immigrants) and Fallowfield (students)

Gentrification

The process of wealthier people moving into an area and carrying out improvements, resulting in the area becoming a desirable place to live

Description of the inner suburbs in Manchester, examples

- Some areas in the inner suburbs have become gentrified

- Chorlton, Didsbury

Suburbanisation

The outward movement of people within a city, from the inner city to the inner suburbs or from the inner suburbs to the outer suburbs. The movement often occurs when people gain higher incomes and/or start families.

Description of the outer suburbs in Manchester, examples

- Most of Manchesters highest quality housing is in the outer suburbs close to the urban fringe

- Hale, Bowdon

Examples of urban fringe

- Dunham Massey, Paddock Lane

Counter-urbanisation

The process of higher income people moving beyond the edge of the city to surrounding villages and towns e.g Knutsford and Lyme for a less stressful, higher quality of life

The Burgess model

Based on the idea that land values are highest in the center of a town or city. This is because competition is high in the central parts of the settlement

Leads to high-rise, high-density buildings being found near the central business district (CBD), with low density, sparse developments on the edge of the town or city.

Structure of Manchester starting from centre

CBD, inner city, inner suburbs, outer suburbs, urban fringe, rural

Limits to the Burgess model

- Made in 1925 where technology was limited

- old and developed before widespread car ownership, doesn't recognise transport links

- model is a simplification, cities are much more complex and dynamic than the model, suggests

Density of buildings in the central business district

- High density/multistorey buildings

- Residential apartments

Land use in the central business district

- retail

- Leisure and recreation

- Business- offices

- Residential

- Transport e.g main train stations

Environmental quality in the central business district

- variable

- Some areas well maintained e.g. shopping centres

- Some areas derelict and vandalised

Density of buildings in the inner city

- High/ medium density, terraced housing

Land use in the inner city

- residential

- some services, e.g. retail parks

- Declining industrial

Environmental quality in the inner city

- Low environmental quality overall

- Derelict industrial units

- Poorly maintained housing

Density of buildings in the inner suburbs

- medium density, terraced and semi detached housing

Land use in the inner suburbs

- residential

- Associated services, e.g. schools and shops

Environmental quality in the inner suburbs

- variable

- Some well-maintained housing and services

- Some derelict areas

Density of buildings in the outer suburbs

- Medium/ low density semidetached and detached housing

- Some open areas

Land use in the outer suburbs

- Residential

- Associated services, e.g. schools and shops

Environmental quality in the outer suburbs

- High environmental quality

- Well maintained housing

Density of buildings in the urban-rural fringe

- low density detached housing

- Large areas of open space

Land use in the urban rural fringe

- residential

- Golf courses

- Business parks

- Woodland and farmland

- Transport links, e.g. airports

Environmental quality in the urban rural fringe

- High environmental quality

Changes in Manchester's ethnic composition

- Overall ethnic composition has more than doubled from 62,000 to 168,000 between 1991 and 2011

Manchester's ethnic population distribution

- Generally the highest percentage of people identifying as "white British" are in the outer suburbs e.g. Hale however, Oldham is an anomaly

- Levels of non " white British" generally decrease with distance from the city

Why does clustering (ethnic enclaves) occur?

- migrants initially moved to low value housing often in the inner city due to low incomes and also because of cultural/religious requirements, e.g. food shops, places of worship

- As more migrants social issues arise , e.g. racism and prejudice cause them to wish to live near members of their own community

Index of Multiple Deprivation (IMD)

- The lower the deprivation of an area, the higher quality of life

- Multiple deprivation is based on seven criteria:

Income, employment, education, skills and training, health/disability, crime, housing, environment

- multiple deprivation deciles are calculated by ranking the 32,844 small areas in England from most deprived to least deprived and dividing them into 10 equal groups. These range from the most deprived 10% of small areas nationally to the least deprived 10% of small areas nationally.