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The cerebral cortex is responsible for functions such as

awareness, language, cognition, memory, and consciousness.

There are four lobes in the cerebrum:

frontal, temporal, occipital, and parietal.

The frontal lobe is involved in

higher executive function, decision making, planning, and memory.

The temporal lobe does what

processes auditory information, speech, memory, and emotion.

The occipital lobe is responsible for

visual perception, color, and form.

The parietal lobe is involved in

sensation, sensory perception, and integration.

what do sensory areas do

receive impulses from sense organs, transmit impulses to the association areas.

what do association areas do

interpret the impulses based on past experiences and transmit them to the motor areas.

what do motor areas do

transmit impulses to effectors (e.g., hands, feet).

The left hemisphere controls

the right side of the body,

the right hemisphere controls

the left side of the body.

Broca's aphasia is a condition where

a person can understand language but has difficulty speaking.

Wernicke's aphasia is a condition where

a person can speak but has difficulty understanding language and may produce nonsensical speech.

Lateralization refers to

the distinct contributions of the left and right hemispheres of the brain to different functions.

The left hemisphere is involved in

language, math, logic, and sequential processing,

the right hemisphere is stronger in

pattern recognition, nonverbal thinking, and emotional processing.

The corpus callosum is

a bundle of fibers that connects the two hemispheres of the brain, allowing them to communicate and share information.

Q8: What is the effect of frontal lobe damage?

impair decision making, emotional responses, and social behavior while leaving intellect and memory intact.

Q9: What is the role of the frontal lobe?

memory formation, emotions, decision making, reasoning, and personality.

Q10: What was the significance of Phineas Gage's case in understanding brain function?

demonstrated the importance of the frontal lobes in personality, reasoning, and social behavior when he experienced frontal lobe damage due to an accident.

The Human Connectome Project (HCP) is a five-year initiative funded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) to

map the brain's long-distance communication network.

How many neurons are thought to be in the human brain?

68 billion neurons.

Neural plasticity refers to

the ability of the nervous system to be modified after birth. It allows for changes in the strength of synaptic connections and can take the form of long-term potentiation (LTP), which enhances synaptic transmission.

The hippocampus plays a role in

the formation of both short-term and long-term memory.

hippocampus is involved in

the initial encoding of memories and the consolidation of long-term memories,

encoding of memories and the consolidation of long-term memories are stored in

the cerebral cortex.

H.M., also known as Henry Molaison, suffered from

severe epilepsy

H.M., also known as Henry Molaison underwent a surgical procedure that

removed part of his medial temporal lobe, including the hippocampus.

H.M., also known as Henry Molaison After the surgery, he experienced

retrograde amnesia (loss of previous memories) and anterograde amnesia (inability to form new memories).

H.M., also known as Henry Molaison His case provided the first evidence of

the role of the hippocampus in memory formation.

Neurogenesis refers to

the generation of new neurons.

It has been discovered that adult stem cells in the hippocampus can give rise to

new neurons that play a role in learning and memory.

Positive regulators of neurogenesis and the survival of new neurons include

hippocampal-dependent learning, physical exercise, environmental enrichment, and long-term potentiation (LTP).

Negative regulators of neurogenesis and the survival of new neurons include

stress, social isolation, alcohol/drug abuse, aging, and other factors.

Some common nervous system disorders that can be explained in molecular terms include

schizophrenia, depression, bipolar disorder, drug addiction, Alzheimer's disease, and Parkinson's disease.

Alzheimer's disease is

an irreversible, progressive brain disease that affects memory and thinking skills.

Alzheimer's hallmarks include

the formation of neurofibrillary tangles and senile plaques in the brain, particularly in regions associated with learning and memory.

In Alzheimer's disease, the production and aggregation of beta amyloid peptide, particularly the Beta Amyloid 1-42 form, play a role in

the disease pathology.

Genetic mutations in proteins like amyloid precursor protein (APP) and presenilin increase the production of

beta amyloid,

increased production of beta amyloid leads to

the formation of plaques and contributing to the neurotoxicity observed in Alzheimer's disease.

Most of a neuron's organelles are in

the cell body.

Dendrites ? signals from other neurons.

receive

The axon transmits

signals to other cells at synapses.

The cone-shaped base of an axon is called

the axon hillock or initial segment.

Myelin sheaths improve

the efficiency of the axon

Myelin sheaths increase

the conduction velocity of the action potential.

Astrocytes and microglia are types of

glial cells.

Action potentials allow

electrical signals to travel along the axon to the synaptic terminal for synaptic transmission.

Neurons connect with each other to

form networks and transmit information from a presynaptic cell to a postsynaptic cell.

The RMP is

the membrane potential of a neuron not sending signals.

the RMP is required for

normal function, including muscle contraction, synaptic transmission, and cell-to-cell signaling.

The resting membrane potential is generated by

ion pumps and ion channels that establish a voltage difference across the plasma membrane.

Sodium-potassium ATPase pumps maintain

concentration gradients of potassium (K+) and sodium (Na+) ions,

potassium channels allow

K+ ions to freely move out of the cell.

In the extracellular environment of a neuron the main ions are

sodium (Na+) and chloride (Cl-) ions.

In the intracellular environment of a neuron the main ion is

potassium (K+) along with non-diffusible molecules like proteins with negatively charged side chains and phosphate compounds.

The resting membrane potential of a neuron is approximately

-65 to -70 mV.

The resting membrane potential is determined by

the balance between electrical driving force and chemical driving force,

the balance between electrical driving force and chemical driving force

the electrochemical equilibrium.

The action potential is

an "all or none" electrical signal that spreads along the axon and does not decrease in amplitude.

graded potential, is

a variable signal generated at synapses.

The action potential is initiated by

the activation of voltage-gated sodium (Na+) channels, allowing sodium to enter the cell.

after The action potential is initiated by the activation of voltage-gated sodium It is then

propagated along the axon as the depolarization spreads.

Repolarization occurs as

potassium (K+) ions leave the cell, leading to the return of the membrane potential to its resting state.

What are the four questions that should be asked about animal behavior?

What stimulus elicits the behavior, and what physiological mechanisms mediate the response? How does the animal's experience during growth and development influence the response? How does the behavior aid survival and reproduction? What is the behavior's evolutionary history?

Animals communicate using

visual, chemical, tactile, and auditory signals.

Imprinting is a behavior that includes

learning and innate components and is generally irreversible.

Imprinting is distinguished from other forms of learning by having

a sensitive period,

sensitive period is a

limited developmental phase when certain behaviors can be learned.

Associative learning is when animals

associate one feature of their environment with another.

Associative learning An example is

classical conditioning,

classical conditioning is where

an arbitrary stimulus is associated with a reward or punishment.

classical conditioning For instance, a dog salivating at the sound of a bell after

repeatedly hearing it before being fed.

Reciprocal altruism is

altruistic behavior toward unrelated individuals that can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future.

Reciprocal altruism occurs in species with

stable social groups where individuals meet repeatedly, and cheaters (those who don't reciprocate) are punished.

Genetic variation is the basis of

natural selection.

Behavior evolves through

changes in gene frequencies in a population over time.

Genetic variation allows for different behaviors to be

favored or disfavored based on their impact on survival and reproduction.

Behavior is influenced by

both genes and the environment.

Genes provide the ? for behavior,

genetic basis

the environment plays a role in ? behavior.

shaping and modifying

The interaction between genes and the environment determines

an individual's phenotype or observable behavior.

Sleep is important for sustaining normal levels of cognitive skills, such as

speech, memory, and innovative thinking.

sleep plays a crucial role in

brain "health" and plasticity, especially in development.

Lack of sleep can disrupt

brain function

Lack of sleep can lead to

grumpiness, grogginess, irritability, forgetfulness, shortened attention span, and severe impairment in language, memory, planning, and sense of time.

How is sleep an active state, and what are the distinct patterns observed in the electroencephalogram (EEG) during sleep?

Sleep is an "?" state

active,

the EEG recordings from the surface of the scalp display distinct patterns that correlate with

different stages and types of sleep.

The EEG reflects

the overall activity of nerve cells in the cerebral cortex.

There is no set amount of sleep that everyone needs since it

varies from person to person.

Results from the sleep profiler indicate that people sleep anywhere between 5 and 11 hours, with an average of

7.75 hours.

The brainstem and cerebrum control

arousal and sleep.

The reticular formation, is

a diffuse network of neurons in the core of the brainstem,

The reticular formation regulates

the amount and type of information that reaches the cerebral cortex,

The reticular formation affects

alertness.

Sleep occurs in a recurring cycle of

90 to 110 minutes

sleep is divided into two categories:

non-REM and REM sleep.

Non-REM sleep has four stages:

Stage 1 (light sleep), Stage 2 (breathing and heart rate slowing down), Stage 3 (delta wave production, deep sleep), and Stage 4 (rhythmic breathing and limited muscle activity).

REM sleep is characterized by

rapid eye movement, increased brain activity, dreaming, darting eye movements, elevated breathing rate, and temporary paralysis of voluntary muscles.