CHECK: the cosmological argument for the existence of God:

What is the basis of the cosmological argument?

The cosmological argument is based on the idea that the universe cannot account for its own existence. There must be a reason for the existence of the universe, which cannot be part of the physical world because the physical world is incapable of being its own reason for existence.

What question does the cosmological argument address?

"Why do things exist at all - why is there something, rather than nothing?"

What does the cosmological argument use as its starting point?

The whole cosmos, or universe, to look for a reason for its existence.

Who was one of the earliest philosophers to present a form of the cosmological argument? What did he argue?

Plato in Timaeus (c. 360 BC). He argued that everything must have been created by some cause.

How did Aristotle contribute to the cosmological argument?

Aristotle argued that behind the series of cause and effect in the world, there must be an Unmoved Mover.

What is the Kalam argument in Islam?

The Kalam argument attempts to show that the universe must have a cause and is not the result of an infinite regress (an endless chain of causes going back forever).

Who are two key philosophers who presented well-known cosmological arguments?

Thomas Aquinas (13th century) and Gottfried Leibniz (17th century).

What were Aquinas’ two assumptions in his cosmological argument?

• The universe exists.

• There must be a reason why.

What was Bertrand Russell and Richard Dawkins' stance on Aquinas' assumption that there must be a reason for the universe's existence?

They were content to accept that "the universe just is" and did not agree that there must be a reason for its existence.

What is Aquinas’ First Way of the cosmological argument?

The argument from motion, also known as the Unmoved Mover.

What did Aquinas observe about motion and change in the world?

Everything that is in motion or changing must be put into motion or changed by something else.

How does Aquinas describe motion in his First Way?

Motion is "the reduction of something from potentiality to actuality."

Explain Aquinas' fire and wood example in the First Way.

Fire, which is actually hot, makes wood (which is potentially hot) become actually hot, thereby changing it.

Why does Aquinas reject the idea of infinite regress in the chain of movers?

If there were no first mover, there would be no subsequent movers. This first mover must be unmoved, and Aquinas identifies this as God.

What is Aquinas’ famous quote from Summa Theologica about the First Way?

“It is necessary to arrive at a first mover, put in motion by no other; and this everyone understands to be God.”

What is the focus of Aquinas' Second Way?

The concept of cause, leading to the argument for the Uncaused Causer.

What is meant by "efficient cause" in Aquinas' Second Way?

Efficient cause refers to the activity or agent that brings something into existence (e.g., a baker is the efficient cause of bread).

Why does Aquinas argue against a chain of infinite causes?

Without a first cause, there would be no ultimate or intermediate causes. Therefore, a first efficient cause is necessary, and this is God.

Quote Aquinas' conclusion from the Second Way in Summa Theologica.

“It is necessary to admit a first efficient cause, to which everyone gives the name of God.”

What is the focus of Aquinas' Third Way?

Contingency – the existence of contingent beings that rely on something else for their existence.

What are contingent beings?

Beings that begin and end, and are dependent on something else for their existence.

How does Aquinas explain the impossibility of infinite contingency?

If everything were contingent, there would have been a time when nothing existed, and nothing would exist now. Therefore, a necessary being must exist.

What is Aquinas’ argument for a necessary being in his Third Way?

There must be a being with its own necessity, which causes the necessity of all other beings. Aquinas identifies this as God.

Who was Gottfried Leibniz, and what was he known for?

Leibniz (1646-1716) was a German philosopher and mathematician, famous for his debate with Newton over the invention of calculus.

What question did Leibniz raise in his cosmological argument?

“Why is there something rather than nothing?”

What is Leibniz's Principle of Sufficient Reason?

1. If something exists, there must be a reason why it exists.

2. If a statement is true, there must be a reason why it is true.

3. If something happens, there must be a reason why it happens.

How does Leibniz explain the need for a reason for eternal things?

Even if something has always existed, we still need a reason for its eternal existence.

Explain Leibniz's "geometry books" analogy.

If copies of a book have always existed, each made from a previous one, we can still ask why such books exist at all. Similarly, the universe needs a reason beyond an infinite series of events.

What conclusion does Leibniz reach about the ultimate reason for the universe?

The reason for the universe must lie outside it, in a being that is the ultimate cause of all things. This being is God.

What is Leibniz’s quote on finding the ultimate reason for the world?

“Even if we assume the past eternity of the world, we can't escape the ultimate and out-of-the-world reason for things, namely God.”