ap psych unit 0

psychology

the study of behavior

confirmation bias

the tendency to seek out and prefer information that supports our preexisting beliefs

hindsight bias

a type of cognitive bias that causes people to convince themselves that a past event was predictable or inevitable

overconfidence

a cognitive bias where people's subjective confidence in their knowledge and abilities is greater than the actual accuracy of those judgments

empirical evidence

information collected through observation, experimentation, or measurment

the scientific method

systemic approach to study human behavior/mental processes

hypothesis

a testable prediction or explanation about the relationship between variables in a study

falsifiable hypothesis

a statement that can be tested and proven false through an experiment or observation

peer review

the process in which experts in a particular field evaluate and critique a research study, article, or manuscript before it gets published

replication

repeating a research study to see if the original findings are consistent and reliable

reliability

the consistency of a test or measure

validity

the degree to which a test or study measures what it is intended to measure

APA

largest scientific and professional organization of psychologists in the US

research design

the overall plan or strategy a psychologist uses to conduct a study and gather data to answer a specific research question or test a hypothesis

methodology

the systematic approach or strategy used by researchers to collect and analyze data in order to answer a specific research question

quantitative data

numerical information that can be measured and analyzed using mathematical methods

qualitative data

non-numerical information that describes qualities, characteristics, and experiences

likert scales

a type of rating scale used in surveys to measure people's attitudes, opinions, or perceptions by asking them to express their level of agreement or disagreement with a series of statements

structured interviews

a research method where all participants are asked the exact same predetermined questions in the exact same order, using a consistent format and scoring criteria, to gather standardized data and minimize bias

survey technique

research method used to collect data from a sample of individuals through self-report measures

wording effect

a phenomenon where the specific phrasing, wording, or order of questions in a survey influences how participants respond, leading to variations in opinions or behaviors

social desirability bias

the tendency of people to answer survey questions in a way that makes them look good to others, even if it's not their true opinion or behavior

naturalistic observation

a research method where a psychologist observes and records behaviors in their natural environment without any interference or manipulation by the researcher

case study

an in-depth, detailed examination of a single individual, group, event, or situation to provide comprehensive information and insight

correlational research

a method that examines the statistical relationship between two or more variables

without manipulating them

third variable problem

the possibility that a 3rd unmeasured variable may be influencing the relationship

scatterplot

a graph that visually shows the relationship between two measured psychological variables

correlation coefficient

a number between -1 and +1 that shows the strength and direction of a linear relationship between two variables

positive correlation

indicates positive relationship

negative correlation

indicates negative relationship

experimental method

research approach that establishes cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating an independent variable to observe its effect on a dependent variable while controlling for extraneous factors

independent variable

variable thats changed or manipulated

dependent variable

variable that is observed and measured

confounding variable

a variable not accounted for or controlled in the study but still affects the results

operational definitions

(how something is measured) clearly specifies the exact procedures, actions, or operations used to measure or manipulate a variable, making an abstract concept concrete and observable for a study

experimental group

the group of participants in a study that receives the independent variable to determine its effect on the dependent variable

control group

the group in an experiment not exposed to the independent variable serving as a baseline for comparison

random assignment

research technique where participants are randomly placed into either an experimental group or a control group (ensures each participant has an equal chance of being in any group)

experimenter bias

the researchers expectations/beliefs about the outcome of a study influence the results

single blind study

only the participants are unaware of which treatment group they are assigned to, while the researchers are fully aware of the group assignments and treatments

double blind study

neither the participants nor the researchers know who is receiving the actual treatment

random sample

every member of the larger population has an equal and independent chance of being selected for the study

psychodynamic perspective

views behavior as driven by unconscious processes, desires, and conflicts, largely shaped by early childhood experiences

behavioral perspective

studies how external environmental factors (rewards, punishments, and observation) shape our observable actions and learning

humanistic perspective

an approach that emphasizes an individual's subjective experiences, free will, and personal growth

cognitive perspective

studies how mental processes like thinking, memory, perception, and problem-solving influence behavior

biological perspective

studies how the brain, nervous system, genetics, hormones, and other physical factors influence our behavior and mental processes

evolutionary perspective

studies behaviors and mental processes by focusing on how natural selection shaped them to enhance survival and reproduction

sociocultural perspective

a psychological approach that explains behavior and development by focusing on how social and cultural factors—like societal norms, values, beliefs, and interactions—influence an individual's thoughts, feelings, and actions

biopsychosocial perspective

studies human behavior and mental processes by examining the complex, interconnected roles of biological, psychological, and social factors

placebo effect

a psychological phenomenon where a person experiences real improvements in their symptoms or condition after believing they are receiving a beneficial treatment simply because they expect it to work

placebo condition

administering the placebo to one one group of participants while the other group receives the actual treatment being tested

sample

a smaller, manageable group of individuals selected from a larger population, used to represent the characteristics of the entire group in research

representative sample

a subset of a larger population that mirrors the demographics, characteristics, and diversity of that entire population

sample bias

when the sample selected for a study is not representative of the overall population, leading to skewed or inaccurate results

generalizability

the extent to which the findings from a study's sample can be applied to a broader, larger population or to different situations and settings