Crim

What is a theory?

A set of inter-related propositions designed to explain a phenomenon

What makes a good theory?

• Logical consistency

• Supported by evidence

• Testable (can be proven wrong)

• Explains and predicts behavior clearly

What are the three parts of causality?

• Correlation

• Time ordered

• Nonspuriousness

What is a spurious relationship?

A false or misleading connection between two variables that is actually caused by a third factor.

Macro-level

• Looks at large social structures (society wide)

• Ex: Poverty rates, laws, social inequality

Meso-level

• Focuses on groups or organizations

• Ex: Neighborhoods, schools, peer groups.

Micro-level

• Focuses on individuals

• Ex: Personality, decision-making, biology.

What is an ecological fallacy?

Assumption of group level data (macro) applies to individuals (micro)

What is a reductionist fallacy?

Assumption of complex behavior (micro) using small factors while ignoring larger influences (macro)

Five criteria of a good theory

• Accuracy

• Breadth (generalizability)

• Parsimony

• Falsifiability

• Policy relevance

What is general deterrence?

People are afraid of punishment that they don’t commit a crime. Punishing one person to discourage the public from committing crime.

What is specific deterrence?

People who commit crime find the punishment so unpleasant that they choose not to commit that crime again. Punishing an offender to stop that same person from reoffending.

What is perceptual deterrence?

How a person’s perception of punishment risk (certainty, severity, celerity) affects their decision to commit crime.

What is focused deterrence?

A strategy that targets specific high-risk individuals or groups (like gangs) with clear consequences and support to prevent crime.

Deterrence focus in 1900s-1960s

Focused on rehabilitation rather than punishment.

What is neoclassicism?

A theory that blends free will with recognition that people don’t always act rationally due to factors like age, mental state, or circumstances.

Rational Choice Theory

People choose to commit crime after weighing the costs (punishment) vs benefits (reward).

Routine Activities Theory by Cohen & Felson

Crime happens when 3 things come together:

• Motivated offender

• Suitable target

• Lack of capable guardian

Control Theories

Theories that explain crime as a result of weakened bonds to society (people offend when controls are weak).

What was Reiss & Reckless theory?

Crime occurs when internal controls (self-control) and external controls (rules, supervision) are weak or absent.

What are the five techniques of neutralism?

• Denial of responsibility

• Denial of injury

• Denial of victim

• Condemn the condemners

• Appeal to higher loyalties

What was Hirschi (1969) Theory?

People don’t commit crime because of strong bonds:

• Attachment

• Commitment

• Involvement

• Belief

What is self control?

The ability to resist impulses and consider long-term consequences.

What was Toby (1957) theory on adult crime?

People with a strong “stake in conformity” (jobs, reputation) are less likely to commit crime.

What was Sampson & Laub (1997) theory on adult crime?

Turning points (marriage, job, military) can redirect people away from crime over time.

What is social control?

Mechanisms (rules, norms, relationships) that regulate behavior and prevent crime.

What was Park & Burgess (1925/1933) theory>

Cities grow in concentric zones, and social problems (like crime) are linked to location and environment.

What are the five concentric zones?

• Central business district (center)

• Industrial zone

• Working class families

• Residential zone

• Commuter zone

Where is crime the highest in the concentric zones?

Zone 1 - Central business district (the center)

What was Shaw & Mckay theory?

Crime is caused by social disorganization in certain neighborhoods, not individual traits.

What is social disorganization?

Breakdown of social institutions (family, school, community) leading to increased crime.

What are the five bubbles of social disorganization?

• Urban density

• Poverty

• Mobility

• Physical dilapidation

• Population heterogenety

What is differential association (Sutherland & Cressey)?

People learn criminal behavior through interaction with others who favor crime.

Differential association is largely replace by…?

Social learning

What is social learning?

People learn crime through observation, imitation, and reinforcement

What is classical conditioning?

Learning by association (automatic response)

What is operant conditioning?

Learning through consequences (rewards/punishments)

What is a positive reinforcement?

Reward added and behavior increases

What is positive punishment?

Bad thing added and behavior decreases

What is negative punishment?

Good thing taken away and behavior decreases

What is negative reinforcement?

Bad thing removed and behavior increases.

What are the four key components of social learning theory (Akers)?

• Differential association (who you hang with)

• Definitions (belief about crime)

• Reinforcement (rewards/punishments)

• Imitation (copying others)

What is anomie?

A state of normlessness where society’s rules are unclear or broken down.

What is Merton’s strain theory (1938/1968)?

Crime occurs when people can’t achieve societal goals (like wealth) through legitimate means.

What is conformity?

Accepting goals and accepting means

What is innovation?

Accept goals but reject means (find illegal ways to succeed).

What is ritualism?

Reject goals but continue to follow legitimate means.

What is retreatism?

Reject goals and reject means.

What is rebellion?

Reject/generate goals and reject/generate means

What is Agnew’s General strain theory (1985)?

Crime is caused by stress/strain from:

• Failure to achieve goals

• Loss of something positive

• Presence of negative stimuli

What was Messner & Rosenfeld (1994) theory?

Crime is high when economic success is overvalued and other institutions (family, school) are weakened.

What is subculture theory #1 (Cohen) about?

Lower-class youth form delinquent subcultures due to frustration from failure to meet middle-class standards.

What is subculture theory #2 (Cloward & Ohlin) about?

Access to illegitimate opportunities shapes different types of criminal subcultures.

What is subculture theory #3 (Miller) about?

Crime comes from lower-class values (“focal concerns”) like toughness, excitement, and autonomy.

What are ‘codes of the streets’ about?

An informal set of rules governing behavior (especially violence) in disadvantaged neighborhoods, emphasizing respect.

What is the central nervous system’s function?

Controls body and mind; processes information and directs responses

What is the prefrontal cortex’s function?

Decision-making, impulse control, reasoning.

What is the limbic system’s function?

Emotions, pleasure, aggression.

Biology for the central nervous system

• Damage or dysfunction can affect behavior, coordination, and impulse control.

Biology for the prefrontal cortex

• Underdevelopment or damage → poor decision-making and impulsivity.

Biology for the limbic system

• Overactivity → aggression, emotional instability.

What are passive genes?

What are evocative genes?

What are active genes?

What is Moffit’s Dual Taxonomy?

Two types of offenders:

• Life-course persistent (long-term offenders)

• Adolescent-limited (temporary during teen years)

What is intellegence?

Ability to learn, reason, and solve problems.

What is temperament?

Innate personality traits (e.g., impulsivity, emotional reactivity).

What is Frued’s personality theory?

• Id (instincts)

• Ego (reality)

• Superego (morals)

What is the five factor model?

• Openness

• Conscientiousness

• Extraversion

• Agreeableness

• Neuroticism

Feminist theory #1 (Alder)

Masculinization hypothesis

Feminist theory #2 (Simon)

Emancipation hypothesis

What is the power control theory?

Gender differences in crime come from family structure and parental control (more freedom = more deviance).

What was Steffensmeir and Allen (2000) theory?

Gender differences in crime are influenced by opportunity, gender roles, and social expectations.

Psychopaths vs sociopaths

• Psychopath: cold, calculated, lacks empathy

• Sociopath: more impulsive, emotional, less organized

What is gendered vs feminist approach?

• Gendered: focuses on differences between males and females in crime

• Feminist: examines inequality, power, and how systems affect women