General anthropology DSST

anthropology

the study of human societies and cultures and the ways they are developed

5 major subfields within American school of anthropology / Boasian

- biological / physical anthropology

- cultural / sociocultural anthropology

- linguistic anthropology

- archaeology

- applied anthropology

what is Biological or Physical Anthropology?

Physical anthropology is the study of human biology and how we evolved. It looks at our physical features, genetics, and how we adapt to different environments

what is biocultural evolution ?

Biocultural evolution is the concept that our evolution is affected by both biology (like our genes) and culture (like our beliefs and behaviors).

what does physical anthropology often look at?

often looks at nonhuman primate species that preceded humans and the ways in which humans are and aren't distinct from such species

what does biological anthropology focus on?

focuses on modern nonhuman primate species as well as those that are now regarded as extinct, including early human ancestors

5 major subfields of physical anthropology

- primatology

- bioarcheology

- human allometry

- paleoanthropology

- molecular anthropology

what is primatology?

study of primates, the order of mammals that include humans, both living and in the fossil record.

what is bioarcheology?

the study of animal or human bones or other remains discovered in archaeological sites for the purpose of understanding their biology

what is human allometry?

study of the relationship between human body size and proportions and the effects of these properties on anatomy, physiology, and behavior.

what is paleoanthropology?

study of human evolution based on the fossil record with a focus on adaptations to human biology and behavior and the environmental factors that made them necessary

what is molecular anthropology?

Molecular anthropology is the study of humans and our relatives using DNA and other molecules. It helps scientists understand our evolutionary history, relationships between species, and genetic diversity.

what is cultural anthropology commonly referred as?

sociocultural anthropology

what is cultural anthropology?

focuses on human cultures, their origins, and the differences between them across time and place

what is culture?

broadly defined as the characteristics and behaviors shared and learned by the members of social groups, which may include memories, patterns, beliefs, values, and expectations

what do cultural anthropologist often seek to create?

often seek to creates a detailed study of a particular culture known as ethnography

3 major ways in which cultures develop

- cultural evolution

- cultural diffusion

- acculturation

what is cultural evolution?

process by which cultures evolve particular features in response to the physical or social demands of the environments that they find themselves in

what is cultural diffusion?

process by which cultural ideas are spread between different cultures

what is acculturation?

process by which two or more cultures encounter each other, causing one or more of the cultures to change as a result

what is participant observation?

involves anthropologist living among the cultures they study and directly observing them

what is ethnocentrism?

Ethnocentrism is the belief that one's own culture is superior to others. It often leads people to judge other cultures based on their own cultural standards, which can create misunderstandings and biases.

what is cultural relativism?

Cultural relativism is the idea that we should understand cultures on their own terms, without judging them by our own standards. It encourages respect for different cultures.

what is a major part of anthropology?

linguistic anthropology

what is linguistic anthropology?

Concerned with the structures of languages and historical, cultural, and social contexts in which they developed.

what are lexicons?

dictionaries containing all of the words formally recognized in that language

what is diglossia?

the difference between formal and informal usages of the language

what is kinesics?

non verbal means of communication common within a culture.

what is archaeology?

the branch of anthropology concerned with studying human and their cultures specifically through environmental data and physical remains left behind past humans.

what are artifacts?

physical remains of past cultures, to help learn about the people of those cultures, how they lived, and what sorts of challenges they faced.

what is applied anthropology?

focused on using knowledge and methodology of anthropology to solve practical problems in modern society

what are the 5 major subcategories of applied anthropology?

- forensic anthropology

- cultural resources management

- medical anthropology

- applied linguistic anthropology

what is forensic anthropology?

application of physical anthropology to study human remains for the purpose of determining the period of time between death and discovery, indications of skeletal trauma or pathologies, possible age, and probable sex.

what is cultural resources management?

application of archaeology to determine how best to preserve cultural artifacts so they can be studied by future generations.

what is medical anthropology?

application of physical anthropology to study human health and disease; an important part of the public health movement that began in the 20th century

what is applied linguistic anthropology?

application of linguistics to help preserve dying languages.

what are ethnographies?

detailed written description of different cultures

what are the 4 major perspectives on cultural anthropology?

- sociobiology

- functionalism

- globalization

- postmodernism

what is sociobiology?

the belief that culture arises naturally from human biology and genetics

what is functionalism?

the belief that the purpose of cultural institutions is to support human societies and fulfill humans, basic needs.

- Pioneered by Bronislaw Malinowski

what is globalization?

the belief that in today's world, separate cultures have been replaced by a single global network connecting goods, services, and resources.

what is postmodernism?

the belief that all observations made by humans are inherently subjective and biased by one's own culture.

what is sex?

it's a biological term and is determined by a person's sex chromosomes, with XX typically considered "female" and XY considered "male".

what is intersex?

individuals whose chromosomes or sex characteristics do not match the standard assumption that XX is a female and XY is male.

Who was one of the first researchers to note that common association between certain characteristics and biological sex are not absolute and that sex is more complicated that is normally recognized?

Anne Fausto-Sterling

what is gender?

it's a social and cultural term referring to the roles, expectations, and assumptions that societies place on people based on their perceived sex

what is gender stratification?

Disproportionate allocation of power, resources, and freedom based on gender.

what is transgender?

individuals whose genders do not match the sex they were assigned at birth

what is gender binary?

classification of all people as either male or female, many cultures around the world recognize three or more genders.

Different genders around the world

- Hijira

- Two - Spirit

- Muxe

- Mahu

- Fa'afafine

- Bakla/Binalaki

- Non-binary/Agender

What is Hijira? (India)

Broad category that includes intersex people, transgender men, and castrated men

what is Two-spirit? (American Indian tribes)

Broad category but generally refers to people who contain elements of both male and female rather than neither

what is Muxe? (Zapotec southern Mexico)

people who are assigned male at birth but whose behavior, dress, and so on is more stereotypically female

what is mahu? (Hawaiian and tahitian)

means "in the middle". Referred to people assigned male at birth but with more female characteristics.

what is fa'afafine? (polynesia)

people assigned male at birth but with characteristics considered both male and female by their culture

what is bakla/binalaki? (philippines)

people assigned male/female at birth, respectively, but displaying characteristics of both. Bakala had important religious roles, historically.

what is nonbinary/agender? (modern global)

to refer to people whose gender identity is neither male nor female. some using these terms may identify as having elements of both genders while others may identify as neither.

what is race?

- refers to people sharing mainly physical characteristics

- previously understood to have a biological basis

- sometimes used as basis for racism

what is ethnicity?

- refers to people sharing cultural values, practices, beliefs, and so on due to common background

- more or less always understood to have a mainly social and cultural basis

who is Johann Blumenbach? 1779

one of the earliest physical anthropologists, published a then popular theory dividing humanity into 5 races. Caucasian, Ethiopian, Malay, Mongolian, and American.

what is cultural ecology?

study of how human culture adapts itself to the environment and sometimes known as ecological anthropology

all living things are based on their ______________?

DNA

as cells divide to create complex living organisms, DNA forms rod-shaped coils known as ____________?

chromosomes

what does each chromosome contain?

they contain genes or unique sequences of chemical base pairs that determine the organisms' traits

how many chromosomes and genes do humans typically have?

- 23 chromosomes

- 20,000-25,000 genes

what are variations called?

they're called alleles

what are caused by alleles?

variation between humans including eye color and hair color

what is a gene pool?

the set of genes that a member of a species might encounter among their potential mates

when does gene flow occur?

occurs when new alleles are introduced to a gene pool.

Ex: when people from different places begin to mate with each other

when does genetic drift occur?

occurs when certain alleles suddenly become more or less common within a population such as when a large segment of a population with a particular trait suddenly dies.

what is a mutation?

changes in genetic material

what is evolution?

changes to the gene pool of a given species over time

what is transcription and translation?

when an organism is developing, DNA is transformed into RNA in an RNA in a process called transcription, and then proteins are synthesized in a process called translation. The larger process is known as gene expression.

what s genotype and phenotype?

the genetic code written into an individual's DNA is known as their genotype. While the expression of the code is known as their phenotype

the taxonomy developed by Linnaeus, what are the 5 categories?

- kingdom

- phylum

- class

- order

- family

- genus

- species

what is a scientific theory?

is a structured explanation of observed facts that is made using the scientific methos, which includes repeated testing and peer review

what is primatology?

the study of nonhuman primates, both living and fossil records

what is paleonthology?

the study of extinct organisms through fossil record

what are the two major types of fossil dating?

relative and absolute dating

what is relative dating?

involves fossils position in time relative to others, such as noting the layer between the sedimentary rock in which it appears

what is absolute dating?

more accurate than relative dating and involves placing fossils and other objects on a scale of time measured in units such as years

what tool is used in the process of absolute dating?

carbon dating

what are excavations?

methods for digging up artifacts

what are the 3 major excavation methods?

- step trenching

- wheeler box-grid

- open area excavation

what is step trenching?

- used in very deep digs

- involves building series of "steps" with a very deep square dig so that different layers within the dig can be identified. Results in a dig that is wide at the top and get narrower as you descend

what is a wheeler box-grid?

- used in shallower digs

- involves creating a grid made up of walled off boxes dividing a site into sections so as to more easily "read" the site and identify exactly where discoveries come from

What is open area excavation?

- used in shallower digs

- like the wheeler box grid, involves forming a grid but without walls between sections. This is more commonly used in the United States, especially when there was only one occupation of the site.

what is stratigraphy?

the study of strata or layers within soil and rock to determine the relative age of an artifact based on the stratum which it lies

What is the law of superposition?

which states that layers of soil are originally laid horizontally, resulting in a series of layers in which, typically, new layers form on top of older ones

what is law of association?

which states that if an area has had multiple occupations, artifacts found in the same layer are likely from the same occupation.

what are the other 3 major types of methods used for relative dating of discovered artifacts?

- seriation dating

catastrophic age profile

- synostosis

what is seriation dating?

method of relative dating for a site by examining the frequency with which different types of artifacts appear there and comparing that against the known time periods in which those types of artifacts were common

what is catastrophic age profile?

method of determining the age at death of a human or animal specimen by analyzing the bones and teeth. Typically used in mass casualty setting only.

what is synostosis?

the joining of separate bones discovered at an archaeological site, often used to determine the age at death of a specimen. Not commonly used.

what are the 4 basic analysis methods used by archaeologists?

- site catchment analysis

- annealing

- palynology

- microwear analysis

what is site catchment analysis?

the study of the surrounding area of a dig and the artifacts found there in an attempt to reconstruct an idea of the economy or society of the area

what is annealing?

the process of heating and cooling metals to shape them, including to restore artifacts that have corroded over time, allowing for better analysis of their function

what is palynology?

the study of fossil pollen to understand past plants and climates

what is microware analysis?

the study of the damage that can be observed on tools and other artifacts to determine what they may be used for

what are the 3 modern methods of archaeology?

- radiocarbon dating

- electron probe microanalysis

- computerized axial tomography