Chapter 8 - Race and Ethnicity

The Meaning of Race

• Originally meant “sort” or “kind.”

• Modern racial categories (Caucasian, Mongoloid, Negroid) emerged during 17th–18th century European colonialism.

• Used to justify slavery, imperialism, and hierarchy.

• Genetics disproves biological race — internal variation > between-group variation.

• “Race” is socially constructed, not biologically real.

Pseudo-Scientific Racism

• Promoted by thinkers like Kant, Voltaire, Hume, Jefferson.

• Claimed biological superiority of white Europeans.

• Supported colonial domination and slavery.

• Discredited by 20th-century genetics and anthropology.

Race as a Social Construct

• A product of social meaning, not biology.

• Defined by perception, power, and history.

• W.I. Thomas: “If people define situations as real, they are real in their consequences.”

• Belief in race produces real inequality and racism.

Racialization

• The process of assigning racial meaning to traits, language, or culture.

• Creates hierarchies of worth and intelligence.

• Makes “race” socially powerful despite biological meaninglessness.

Visible Minorities in Canada

• Census category: non-white, non-Indigenous groups.

• Includes South Asian, Chinese, Black, Filipino, Arab, Latin American, etc.

• Purpose: monitor equity in jobs, education, and services.

• Criticized as vague and homogenizing.

Stereotype

• The oversimplified image of a group.

Prejudice

• The rigid, negative belief about a group.

Discrimination

• The unequal treatment based on group membership.

Racism

• The combination of prejudice + discrimination reinforced by power.

Types of Racism

• Interpersonal: individual prejudice and behavior.

• Institutional: policies that intentionally or systemically harm groups (e.g., head tax).

• Cultural: everyday and ideological racism embedded in norms.

• Systemic: unequal outcomes built into institutions.

Examples of Institutional Racism

• Systematic: explicit, intentional laws (e.g., Chinese Head Tax, “Voyage of the Damned”).

• Systemic: subtle structural barriers (e.g., height/weight restrictions).

Eugenics in Canada

• Early 20th century: sterilization laws in Alberta & BC targeted minorities.

• Consent rules removed (1937).

• Indigenous and Métis made up 25% of sterilized but only 2.5% of population.

• Repealed in 1971 — legacy of racial “purity” ideology.

Pseudo-Science and Race - Rushton

• Claimed three races (Negroid, Caucasoid, Mongoloid) differed in intelligence, crime, and aggression.

• His methods were flawed and racist.

• Ignored cultural and measurement biases.

Biological Theories Explaining Racism

• Suggests prejudice and discrimination are “natural” and inevitable.

• Disproved: humans often harm members of their own group or cooperate across groups.

Psychological Theories Explaining Racism

• Frustration-Aggression: personal frustration displaced as aggression toward scapegoats (e.g., Hitler blaming Jews).

• Linked to authoritarian personality (rigid, conformist).

Normative Approach

• Prejudice learned through socialization and group norms.

• Children adopt community attitudes.

• Robert Merton: discrimination can precede prejudice; people blame others for blocked success.

Merton’s Revision and The Vertical Mosaic

• John Porter.

• Merton: conflict between social goals and blocked opportunities breeds discrimination.

• Porter: Canada’s Vertical Mosaic — ethnic groups arranged hierarchically.

• Charter groups: early colonizers who set societal rules.

• Entrance groups: later immigrants, placed lower.

Conflict Perspectives on Racism

• Merton’s ideas influenced conflict theorists.

• Satzewich: prejudice arises from capitalist struggles and scapegoating.

• Examples: Chinese head tax, Continuous Voyage Clause, racial wage gaps.

Split-Labour Market Theory

• Edna Bonacich.

• Three groups:
  A. Capitalists/business owners.
  B. Higher-paid (white) labour.
  C. Lower-paid (non-white) labour.

• Employers benefit from racial division among workers to keep wages low.

Master narrative and buried knowledge

• Foucalt.

• Master narrative: dominant story (Canada as tolerant, multicultural).

• Buried knowledge: repressed histories of colonization and racism.

• Canada’s national myth hides systemic discrimination against Indigenous and racialized peoples.

Indigenous Peoples and Colonialism

• Colonization brought disease, displacement, and land theft.

• Doctrine of Discovery (1493): justified European ownership of Indigenous lands.

• Indian Act (1876): imposed control; removed women’s status until Bill C-31 (1985) restored it.

• Métis: fought for land rights (Riel Rebellions, 1869–70 & 1885).

• Inuit: misclassified as “Eskimos” until mid-20th century; self-governance in Nunavut (1999).

Indigenous Demographics

• Indigenous peoples ≈ 5% of population.

• Growing 4× faster than non-Indigenous groups.

• Driven by youth population and self-identification.

Racism in Justice System

• Cases: Colten Boushie (2016), Helen Betty Osborne (1971).

• Reveal bias in courts and policing.

• 2019 Bill C-75 abolished peremptory jury challenges.

Migrant Workers and Racialization

• SAWP (1966–present): Mexican workers tied to one employer.

• Poor conditions, racism, lack of rights.

• Example of racialized labour exploitation

Racialization in Sports

• Black and white athletes stereotyped into roles (e.g., QB vs. RB).

• Hockey: 97% white (2018); Willie O’Ree broke color barrier (1958).

• Anti-Black racism persists in all levels of sport.

Race vs ethnicity

• Race: externally imposed classification based on appearance.

• Ethnicity: shared culture, ancestry, or language; self-defined.

• You can adopt ethnic identities (e.g., Irish Canadian) but not racial ones.

• Nationality ≠ ethnicity ≠ race.

Theories of Ethnicity

• Essentialism (Primordialism): ethnicity is ancient and fixed.

• Postcolonialism: colonial power created divisions (Fanon, Memmi).

• Epiphenomenalism: ethnic conflict stems from class conflict (Marxist).

• Instrumentalism: elites manipulate ethnicity for power.

• Social Constructivism: ethnicity formed and reshaped through social interaction.

Rwanda

• Colonial rule favored Tutsis over Hutus, creating artificial divisions.

• Colonial favoritism later fueled ethnic genocide (1994).

WEB Du Bois

• First African American sociologist; founded NAACP.

• Wrote The Souls of Black Folk (1903).

• Advocated Pan-Africanism and sociology rooted in justice and community.

Daniel G Hill

• First Black Canadian sociologist (PhD, U of T).

• Directed Ontario Human Rights Commission.

• Wrote The Freedom Seekers: Blacks in Early Canada (1981).

• Promoted anti-racism and equality in Canada.

Intersectionality

• Crenshaw & Hill Collins: interlocking oppressions of race, gender, class, sexuality.

• Explains unique experiences (e.g., Black women).

• Used in MMIWG Inquiry (2019) to analyze systemic violence.

William Julius Wilson

• Examined structural racism and adaptive cultural responses.

• Poverty shapes behaviors for survival (“street smarts”).

• Warned against blaming individuals while noting long-term social impacts.

Elements of Racism

• Tatum, 2003.

• Racialization: classification of people as biologically distinct.

• Prejudice: negative attitudes.

• Discrimination: unequal treatment.

• Power: structures that maintain dominance.

Racial Profiling and Carding

• Black and Indigenous Canadians disproportionately stopped or charged.

• Desmond Cole: carding = psychological surveillance.

• Wortley (2019): Black people in Halifax 6× more likely to be stopped than whites.

Hate Crimes in Canada

• 2017: 43% racially motivated.

• COVID-19: anti-Asian hate crimes up 300%+.

• Most incidents target property; underreporting remains high.