The Greek World

Herodotus (from Halicarnassus) says main cause of the Ionian Revolt is the tyrant Aristagoras from Miletus

Other possible causes of the revolt:

• loss of freedom for Greeks in Asia Minor when conquered by Cyrus
• didn’t like being ruled by ‘barbarian’ king
• high amounts of tribute (taxation) required to be paid to the Persians
• using Greek tyrants to rule over conquered Greek city-states

It was due to the actions of Aristagoras that involved Athens in the Ionian Revolt

[[Ionian Revolt[[

• Histiaeus = tyrant of Miletus in late 6th century BC
• Worked with King Darius against Thrace and Macedonia
• Appointed as satrap by King Darius
• 511 BC King Darius got suspicious and called him back to Susa and detained for several years
• Histiaeus left his son-in-law (Aristagoras) in charge of Miletus
• Aristagoras became powerful figure
• Approached by exiled aristocrats from Naxos
• They wanted his help in getting their power back
• Plans to rule Naxos himself
• Tells Artaphernes, Naxos is really good and he should attack it and restore exiles
• Artaphernes is satrap at Sardis and brother of King Darius
• Persian military commander
• Agrees with Aristagoras and says they need to get Darius’ approval
• Darius approves
• Naxians were warned in advance so despite large number of ships the campaign was a failure
• Herodotus says after this failed campaign Histiaeus sent a secret message to Aristagoras urging him to revolt
• Aristagoras vows to damage King Darius
• He revolts and tries to appeal to Cleomenes, King of Sparta
• Cleomenes says no because he doesn’t want to spend 3 months at sea
• He appeals to Athens and they send 20 warships
• City-state Eretria help Aristagoras because Miletus (where Aristagoras is from) had helped them earlier and they felt they owed them
• Persia had the resources and wealth to commit to a sustained period of conflict in response to the revolt
• Persia had to win otherwise other satrapies could revolt too

[[Timeline of the Ionian Revolt[[

• 498 BC: - Burning of Sardis (capital of Lydia)

  - Athenians defeated by Persian forces near Ephesus

• 497 BC: - Cyprus revolts against Persia; siege results in Persian victory

• 496 BC: - Caria revolts against Persia; land battles result in heavy losses for the Carians

  - Artistagoras flees to Thrace, where he is killed by the Thracians

  - Histiaeus sent to the coast; goes to Byzantium

• 495 BC: - No battles or military actions took place (according to Herodotus)

• 494 BC: - Six cities on the Ionian coast continue to fight against Persia

  - Battle at Lade (near Miletus)

  - Samos withdraws, followed by many others

  - Greeks defeated and Miletus destroyed - many Miletians sold into slavery

• 493 BC: - Histiaeus killed

  - Miltiades escapes to Athens

• 492 BC: - Persians conquer islands of Chios, Lesbos and Tenedos

  - European coast (Chersonese and Bosphorus) retaken by Persia

  - Darius sends an army and navy to retake Thrace and attack Athens and Eretria with Mardonius - in command

[[Reasons for Athenians Supporting the Ionian Revolt[[

• Ionians in Athens/Athenians in Ionia, strong ties
• Loved democracy and opposed tyranny and any form of tyrannical rule
• Darius got Thrace making it harder to trade with the Black Sea area (economic)
• Serious naval threat after Cambyses founded a Persian navy
• Hippias (ex-tyrant of Athens exiled to Persia) with the support of Darius was sending threats to Athens that he is trying to return to power

[[The Outcome of the Ionian Revolt[[

• The revolt failed and Persia regained control of Ionian Greece
• City-state Miletus was destroyed
• Ionians were not harshly punished by the Persians
• Artaphernes became satrap and encouraged peace by promoting negotiation as a means to settle disputes
• Miltiades’ escape after his involvement with the Persians provided him with a unique perspective that aided the Greeks significantly during the Battle of Marathon
• The Persians replaced many tyrants with a form of government that shared similarities to democracy
• From the beginning of the Persian empire, their main policy was to leave existing political structures in place as that often proved to be the best way to maintain stability and control of newly conquered territories
• The Persians either didn’t know or didn’t care about the political changes occurring in city-states such as Athens at the end of the 6th century BC
• Despite Aristagoras’ insistence that he had become a strong democratic supporter, his previous role as tyrant of Miletus and his attempts at obtaining control of Naxos are perhaps more indicative of his true motives and involvement in the Ionian Revolt

[[Sources: Ionian Revolt[[

[[Edith Hall - Introducing the Ancient Greeks (2014):[[

‘It must have been terrifying for the Greeks in Asia Minor to watch the sheer speed at which the Achaemenids gobbled up the world. During Cyrus’s lifetime alone, the Achaemenids took Lydia, Lycia, the Greek cities of Anatolia, Phoenicia, Cilicia, and Babylonia, creating an enormous empire extending from modern India to western Turkey and the eastern Balkans. Cyrus’s son, Cambyses II, only ruled for eight years…but conquered Egypt. Darius then achieved the consolidation of the empire symbolized by the building of massive royal edifices at Susa and Persepolis. In 499 BC, many of the Greek cities of Ionia revolted against Persian rule, which in their communities was mostly maintained in the name of the Persian king by carefully chosen Greek tyrants.’

Paraphrasing: Edith Hall details how the Greeks might have felt witnessing the rapid Persian expansion and provides another perspective into why many of the Greek cities of Ionia may have revolted.

[[Herodotus - The Histories:[[

‘Certain substantial citizens of Naxos, forced by the popular party to leave the island, took refuge in Miletus, which had been put under Aristagoras…as deputy governor. He was nephew and son-in-law of Histiaeus, who was being detained by Darius at Susa…The first thing [the Naxian exiles'] did when they got [to Miletus] was to ask Aristagoras to lend them some troops, in the hope of recovering their position at home. This suggested to Aristagoras that if he helped the exiles to return he himself would be the lord of Naxos; so using their friendship with Histiaeus to cloak his purpose, he made them an offer. ‘Personally,’ he said, ‘I cannot party now in power…I will, however, do my best to find a means of helping you. My idea is this: Artaphernes [a satrap] is a friend of mine…and as you must know, is the son of Hystaspes and the brother of Darius, and is in command of the whole coastal district of Asia, with a large army and navy. This I think is the man who will do our business for us.’ Aristagoras then went to Sardis and told Artaphernes that Naxos, in spite of its small size, was a fine and fertile island, close to the Ionian coast, and rich both in treasure and slaves…’I suggest that you attack it, and restore the exiles. If you do this…you will add to the King’s dominions not only Naxos itself but the other islands of the Cyclades, such as Paros and Andros, which are dependent on it. Then with the Cyclades as your base you will have no difficulty in attacking Euboea, a large island-as large as Cyprus-and very prosperous and easy to take. For the whole enterprise you will need no more than a hundred ships.’ ‘The plan you propose,’ Artaphernes replied, ‘is likely to be of great benefit to our royal house, and I think your advice is excellent…The only other thing we need is to get the king’s approval.’’

Paraphrasing:

[[Herodotus - The Histories:[[

‘Aristagoras [was already contemplating rebellion], when something else occurred to confirm his purpose: this was the arrival from Susa of a slave, sent by Histiaeus, the man with the tattooed scalp, urging him to do precisely what he was thinking of, namely, to revolt. …Aristagoras, in open rebellion, set himself to damage Darius in every was he could think of. To induce the Milesians to support him, he began by abdicating his own position in favour of a democratic government, and then went on to do the same thing in the other Ionian states, where he got rid of the political bosses…Having thus put down the despots in the various states of Ionia, Aristagoras of Miletus first has generals appointed, and then, as he needed to find some powerful ally, embarked in a warship and set sail on a mission to Lacedaemon [Sparta].’

Paraphrasing: According to Herodotus, Histiaeus encouraged Aristagoras’, who was already considering rebellion, to revolt. Herodotus also claimed that Aristagoras then got the Milesians to support him by abdicating his own position and replacing it with a democratic government, then did the same in other Ionaian states and then needed to find a powerful ally, so he set sail to Lacedaemon (Sparta)

[[Herodotus - The Histories:[[

‘proposal to take [Spartan soldiers] a three months’ journey from the sea is a highly improper one’

Paraphrasing: According to Herodotus, King Cleomenes refused to help Aristagoras as three months at sea was too long

[[Herodotus - The Histories:[[

‘[Aristagoras], so anxious was he to get Athenian aid, that he promised everything that came into his head, until at last he succeeded…Once persuaded to accede to Aristagoras’ appeal the Athenians passed a decree for the dispatch of twenty warships to Ionia…’

Paraphrasing: According to Herodotus, Aristagoras promised everything he could think of to Athens for their help in the Ionian Revolt, resulting in 20 warships being sent to Ionia

]]The First Persian Invasion of Greece]]

• Darius’ first attempt at invasion was in 492 BC
• General Mardonius in command
• Resulted in recapturing many areas lost during the Ionian Revolt: Thrace, Thasos and the addition of Macedonia to the Persian Empire
• Before Mardonius could continue his assault on Eretria and Athens, the Persian fleet was largely destroyed in bad weather off the Macedonia coast
• Mardonius was disgraced and Darius didn’t entrust command to him for the invasion in 490 BC

]]Persian Preparations]]

• Darius didn’t want a repeat of 492 BC so he began preparing for another invasion by recruiting more forces for his army and navy
• Before sending forces into Greece, he sent messengers to city-states throughout Greece, demanding their surrender (earth and water)
• Most islands and city-states submitted
• Athens and Sparta didn’t submit
• Darius recruited land and sea forces from various satrapies
• While the exact numbers aren’t known, based on the nature of the invasion forces, it couldn’t have been more than 25,000
• Darius appointed two new generals: Datis (a prominent Median commander) and Artaphernes (Darius’ nephew)
• Hippias (former tyrant of Athens) went with the Persian forces
• He helped the Persians figure out the best place to land their ships as well as provided strategic advice regarding Greek military fighting and tactics

]]Greek Preparations]]

• Miltiades fled Ionia in 493 BC and returned to Athens
• Even though he sided with and supported the Ionian rebels, his actions as tyrant in the Chersonese didn’t go unnoticed by many in Athens
• When he was back in Athens he got put on trial for tyranny
• He was acquitted
• He was then elected general (strategos) of his tribe
• He had more first-hand knowledge of the Persians than anyone

]]Hostility with Aegina]]

• Aegina is a Greek city-state
• Aegina had recently attacked the coast of Attica, including their main port at Phaleron
• Athenians felt threatened as Aegina were already hostile towards them and now they had submitted to Persia
• Aegina’s submission may have been an economic one instead of a military one
• Aegina depended on trade with the East to support their economy, so not submitting to Persia may have resulted in their demise anyway
• Athens enlists the help of King Cleomenes and ultimately Cleomenes and the other Spartan king Leotychidas seized ten wealthy and prominent citizens of Aegina and gave them to Athens to hold hostage
• When Cleomenes died the Aeginetans demanded the hostages back but Athens refused
• A while later Aegina managed to seize a ship with a number of important Athenians on board
• Aegina had a bigger fleet than Athens and although Athens enlisted ships from Corinth, they were eventually defeated anyway
• This conflict made it hard for the Greeks to adequately prepare for the arrival of the Persians
• This conflict also highlighted the inadequacy of Athens as a naval power in Greece

]]Policies of Themistocles]]

• The earliest record of Themistocles in public life was his election to the archonship of Athens in 493 BC
• He had no political backing from any influential families and factions which made his rise to this top position in the state an indication of his ability

Thucydides describes him as ‘a man of unmistakable natural genius’

• His naval policy led to a Greek victory in the second Persian invasion of Greece

• He strongly believed the future and growth of Athens depended on a formidable navy

• To do this he proposed: - moving the present port of Athens from the exposed bay of Phaleron to the - rocky peninsula further west and fortifying the whole circuit of the peninsula

  - building up a large fleet of warships and training their crews

• He was able to fulfil the first part of his vision for Athens in 493 BC

]]Persia Heads to Greece]]

]]Athens Response to Attack on Eretria]]

]]Persians Land at Marathon]]

]]Greeks Assemble]]

]]Battle of Marathon]]

• CHYROS

]]Reasons for Greek Victory]]

]]Outcome and Consequences of Battle of Marathon]]

]]Sources]]

]]Herodotus - The Histories:]]

‘Darius now began to put out feelers to test the attitude of the Greeks, and to find out whether they were likely to resist or surrender. He sent heralds to the various Greek states to demand earth and water for the King…’

In Athens, Darius’ heralds were ‘thrown into a pit like criminals’

In Sparta, ‘they were pushed into a well and told that if they wanted earth and water for the king, to get it from there’

Paraphrasing: According to Herodotus, Darius sent heralds to demand earth and water from various Greek states; many submitted while Athens and Sparta both responded hostile

]]Herodotus - The Histories:]]

The Athenians sent a professional runner, Pheidippides, to Sparta to appeal to them not to

‘…stand by while the most ancient city in Greece is crushed and subdued by a foreign invader.’

Although the Spartans were moved by the appeal and were willing to help, they could not come immediately because:

‘…it was the 9th day of the month and they said they could not take the field until the moon was full [and they] did not wish to break the law.’

Paraphrasing:

]]Herodotus - The Histories:]]

Miltiades was able to convince Callimachus to take the decision to fight with the following words:

‘Never in our history have we Athenians been in such peril as now … we commanders are … not agreed upon what action to take, half of us are for battle, half against it. If we refuse to fight, I have little doubt that the result will be bitter dissension; our purpose will be shaken, and we shall submit to Persia. But if we fight before the rot can show itself in any of us, then, if God gives us fair play, we can not only fight but win. Yours is the decision; all hangs upon you; vote on my side and our country will be free …’

Paraphrasing:

]]Herodotus - The Histories:]]

Description of Persian armour and weapons:

‘… the tiara, or soft felt cap, embroidered tunic with sleeves, a coat of mail looking like the scales of a fish, and trousers: for arms they carried light wicker shields, quivers slung below them, short spears, powerful bows with cane arrows, and daggers swinging from belts beside the right thigh … the dress of the Cissian contingent was like the Persians, except that instead of caps they wore turbans.’

The Sakae, who also accompanied the Persians to Marathon, wore:

‘… trousers and tall pointed hats set upright on their heads, and were armed with the bows of their country, daggers and the sagaris, or battle-axe.’

Paraphrasing:

]]Alan Lloyd - Marathon:]]

The Athenian hoplite supplied his panoply at his own expense and though not a regular uniform, the components were fairly standard from man to man. On the upper part of the body, he wore a corselet plated with gleaming bronze… From the waist down, a short skirt of tough leather thongs, joined to the corselet with a heavy belt, protected hips, abdomen and upper thighs…padded bronze greaves on the lower part stretched from knee to ankle. The whole outfit was topped by a splendid bronze helmet …

The Greek hoplite wore a short sword at his left side. He also carried into action an ashwood lance tipped with iron. A bronze shield completed all this impressive equipment…

Not everyone could afford such costly trappings. One citizen might possess part of the armour, another no more than a sword and spear. These more than vulnerable individuals would fill the rear ranks in an engagement, or maybe stand apart and sling missiles at the enemy.’

Paraphrasing:

]]Alan Lloyd - Marathon:]]

‘…They (cavalry) used speed and manoeuvrability to outflank and harry the enemy, while bowmen disorganised his ranks with their crippling arrow flights. Persian archery was alarmingly accurate, and lethal at up to perhaps 112 metres.’

Paraphrasing:

]]A. R. Burn - Persia and the Greeks:]]

‘[Callimachus] … led the right wing, with his own tribal regiment… Then came the other tribes in their tribal order…Oineis (Miltiades’ tribe)… On the centre was Leontis tribe commanded by Themistocles and Antiochis by Aristides…’

Paraphrasing:

]]Herodotus - The Histories:]]

‘… the Athenian army moved into position for the coming struggle. The right wing was commanded by Callimachus-for it was the regular practice at that time in Athens that the War Archon should lead the right wing; then followed the tribes, in their regular order; and finally, on the left wing, were the Plataeans …

One result of the disposition of the Athenian troops before the battle was the weakening of their centre by the effort to extend the line sufficiently to cover the whole Persian front; the two wings were strong, but the line in the centre was only a few ranks deep … the Athenians advanced at a run towards the enemy, not less than a mile [1.6k] away. The Persians, seeing the attack developing at the double, prepared to meet it, thinking it suicidal madness for the Athenians to risk an assault with so small a force - rushing in with no support from either cavalry or archers. Well, that was what they imagined; nevertheless, the Athenians came on, closed with the enemy all along the line, and fought in a way not to be forgotten. They were the first Greeks, so far as I know, to charge at a run …

The struggle at Marathon was long drawn out. In the centre, held by the Persians themselves and the Sakae, the advantage was with the foreigners, who were so far successful as to break the Greek line and pursue the fugitives inland from the sea; but the Athenians on one wing and the Plataeans on the other were both victorious. Having got the upper hand, they left the defeated enemy to make their escape, and then, drawing the two wings into a single unit, they turned their attention to the Persians who has broken through in the centre. Here again they were triumphant, chasing the routed enemy, and cutting them down until they came to the sea, and men were calling for fire and taking hold of the ships. It was in this phase of the struggle that the War Archon Callimachus was killed, fighting bravely… The Athenians secured in this way seven ships; but the rest got off, and the Persians aboard them, after picking up the Eretrian prisoners whom they had left on Aegilia, laid a course round Sounium for Athens, which they hoped to reach in advance of the Athenian army.’

Paraphrasing:

]]Alan Lloyd - Marathon:]]

‘At two hundred yards the archers began to flex their weapons … Then while the archers aimed a light volley to fall at perhaps rather more then a hundred yards, the Athenians abruptly levelled their spears and the entire phalanx broke into a loping charge.’

Paraphrasing:

]]Pausanias - Guide to Greece 1: Central Greece:]]

‘The country district of Marathon. halfway between Athens and Carystus in Euboea, is where the barbarians landed in Attica, were beaten in battle, and lost some ships when they retreated. The grave on the plain is that of the Athenians; there are stones on it carved with the names of the dead in their tribes. The other grave is that of the Plataeans, Boeotians, and slaves; this was the first battle in which slaves fought.

One man, Miltiades, has a private memorial; he died later after failing at Paros and standing trial at Athens. Here every night you can hear the noise of whinnying horses and of men fighting… The people of Marathon worship as divine heroes those killed in the battle, and Marathon (the person) from whom the place gets its name, and Herakles; they claim to have been the first Greeks to believe that Herakles was a god… The Athenians say they buried the Persians because under all circumstances religion demands the covering of a dead body with earth; but I was unable to find any grave and there was no mound or any other sign; they must have carried them to a pit and thrown them in anyhow.’

Paraphrasing:

]]Alan Lloyd - Marathon:]]

‘generations of imperial glory to retreat from the army of a reputedly petty state’

Paraphrasing:

]]Anonymous Historian:]]

‘Nothing was omitted that could keep alive the remembrance of a deed which had first taught the Athenian people to know its own strength by measuring it with the power which has subdued the greater part of the known world. The consciousness thus awakened fixed its character, its station, and its destiny.’

Paraphrasing:

{{The Interwar Period: 490-480 BC{{

{{Timeline of the Interwar Period{{

• 488 BC: - First ostracism recorded in Athens

• 487 BC: - Democratic changes in Athens - archons selected by lot and strategoi replaces polemarch

  - Athens at war with Aegina

• 486 BC: - King Darius of Persia dies - Xerxes is named as his successor

  - Egyptians revolt against Persian rule

• 484 BC: - Babylonians revolt against Persian rule

• 483 BC: - Xerxes prepares for invasion of Greece

  - Themistocles convinces Athenians of the need for a large Athenian navy

• 482 BC: - Aristides ostracised from Athens

• 481 BC: - Greek congress of the Isthmus

  - Consultation of the Delphic Oracle

• 480 BC: - Athens finishes building of triremes

{{Succession of Xerxes{{

• Xerxes was 32 when he became king
• Prior to becoming king, he had served as satrap of Babylon for approximately 10 years
• However, he was yet to prove himself as a military leader

{{Xerxes’ Decision to Invade Greece{{

• It took several years for Xerxes to invade Greece as the Egypt and Babylon satrapies revolted shortly after Xerxes became king
• Poor outcomes in 492 and 490 BC would’ve made Xerxes hesitant to commit the time and resources for such a massive campaign

{{Other Factors{{

• There were a number of Greeks in the Persian court at that time who wanted to see Greece invaded:
• Demaratus (exiled King of Sparta)
• members of the Pisistradae family (former tyrant of Athens)
• messengers from a ruling faction of Thessaly (a Greek city-state at odds with Athens)
• Mardonius, who headed the failed invasion of 492 BC, was also in favour of Xerxes invading Greece
• Mardonius is Xerxes’ cousin
• Artabanus, Xerxes’ uncle, was opposed to invading Greece

Herodotus states ‘Xerxes went to bed, worried about Artabanus’ words. Then, Xerxes dreamed of a spirit who told him if he failed to march in to Greece, he would lose his kingship of Persia.’

• Convinced by many individuals and his dream, Xerxes would invade Greece in 480 BC

{{Persian Strategy{{

Herodotus states ‘the Persian forces consisted of over half a million people’

• To move such a big land army and conquer Greece, Xerxes first had to conquer the landscape of Asia Minor and Greece
• Xerxes planned a combined sea and land invasion of Greece
• One of the failures of the 490 BC campaign was due to the heavy reliance on ships to move troops and supplies from Persia into Greece
• Xerxes was determined not to make the same mistake as Darius

{{Persian Preparations{{

• Digging a canal through Mt Athos
• Bridging the Strymon River
• Establishing supply depots
• Recruiting an army and navy
• Bridging the Hellespont

{{Greek Preparations{{

{{Outcomes of the Greek Congress{{

{{Greek Leadership{{

{{Greek Strategy{{

{{Sources{{

}}The Second Persian Invasion of Greece}}

}}Battles of the Second Persian Invasion of Greece}}

}}Thermopylae}}

• Themistocles believed if the Greeks were clever in their choice of battle sites they stood a better chance against the massive Persian forces
• The Greeks couldn’t match the Persians in numbers so they had to use local knowledge to their advantage as much as possible
• The Pass was chosen as the battle site by the Greeks because:
• Central Greece could be defended with a relatively small force of soldiers
• The corridor between the mountains and the sea was about 1.5 kilometres long and in places just the width of a single cart-track
• Midway along the pass was an ancient wall which, if repaired, would provide protection for the Greek forces
• At the southern end was a village that the Greeks could use as a supply base
• Leonidas (Spartan king) marched to Thermopylae with an advance force of approximately 7000 hoplites
• 300 Spartan which formed the core of a predominately Peloponnesian force
• There were also Thebans, Thespians, Phocians and Locrians
• Leonidas insisted on having Theban troops with him because he didn’t trust their loyalty to the Greek cause
• He made the village of Alpenoi the base of his operations
• Then took up a position with his troops near an ancient wall which they rebuilt
• This gave the Greeks control of the narrow passage between the mountains and the sea, where they could advance and retire
• When he arrived in the area he was informed that there was an alternative pass - a narrow track over the mountains
• 1000 Phocian troops volunteered to guard this path, since they were familiar with the area
• He also sent an appeal for reinforcements
• He didn’t think he’d have to face the Persians until the main force of the Greeks had joined him but this wasn’t the case
• The Persians were already camped north of the pass
• When the Greek troops realised the situation they wanted to withdraw
• Leonidas was prepared to face the enemy without reinforcements
• Reinforcements never came
• Xerxes waited on the other side of the pass while the remainder of his foot soldiers and cavalry arrived
• Meanwhile, he sent a scout to check the size of the Greek force and report on what they were doing

Herodotus says ‘Xerxes’ disbelief when he heard that a small number of Greeks outside the wall ‘were stripped for exercise while others were combing their hair’

• The scout hadn’t seen the other Greek troops
• The soldiers outside the wall were Spartan hoplites; who grew their hair long and exercised naked
• Xerxes was bewildered and sent for Demaratus (ex-king of Sparta) to ask what this behaviour meant
• Xerxes didn’t believe such a small force had the courage to face his huge army, expecting them to withdraw
• After four days of waiting he was furious at their audacity to stay and fight
• On day five he ordered for his troops to take them alive and bring them to him
• For two days Xerxes made an all-out frontal attack
• He expected his fleet to land behind the Greeks, but it was prevented by the Greek fleet at Artemisium
• MORE

}}Artemisium}}

• Persian fleet anchored off the coast near Cape Sepias was hit by a severe storm which lasted for 3 days

Herodotus claims ‘200 Persian ships were sent south to sail around Euboea but were destroyed on the rugged coast’

• Persian fleet moved to the safety of Aphetae but the Greeks made two raids on them
• Xerxes had sent a message to his fleet to break through the straits and make contact with the army
• Because Persian commanders were alarmed at the thought of what Xerxes might do to them if they didn’t attack the Greeks, they put to sea
• The Greeks waited patiently at Artemisium for the Persians to approach
• The battle that followed happened on the same day Thermopylae

According to Herodotus ‘the two fleets were evenly matched in performance. However, the Persians proved to be their own worst enemy as their boats kept fouling each other as they tried to manoeuvre. Depite the confusion that resulted, the Persians ‘fought bravely to avoid the disgrace of defeat by so small an enemy force’’

Herodotus states ‘the Greek losses both in ships and men were heavy, those of the Persians much heavier’

• Eventually action broken off with no side getting the upper hand
• When the Greeks realised the damage they suffered, they agreed with Themistocles to withdraw south
• Themistocles suggested they light their fires as usual to deceive the Persians and then sail under the cover of darkness
• While they were getting ready to leave they learnt that Leonidas had been defeated so they left faster lol
• As they withdrew, Themistocles saw an opportunity to undermine the enemy
• Messages were cut into the rock faces along the Euboeic Channel
• Themistocles’ plan to hold the Persian fleet at Artemisium had an important effect on the outcome of the war
• Due to the loss of a large part of they original fleet, the Persians had to re-think their naval strategy
• They abandoned plans to divided their fleet to make raids on the coast of the Peloponnese (diversions and occupation of strategic points)
• They would concentrate their efforts at one point only
• Losing at Thermopylae and ‘drawing’ at Artemisium meant central Greece was overtaken easily by the huge cavalry
• Lucky Themistocles predicted if this was to happen Athens should have an evacuation plan which they put into practice immediately - fleeing to Salamis
• Delphic Oracle also told the Athenians not to wait until the Persians arrived but to board their ships and flee from their city
• MORE SORTA
• KYKLOS

}}Salamis}}

• After the evacuation at Athens, the Athenian ships joined the rest of the fleet at Salamis

• This fleet was larger than the one at Artemisium

• Commanded by Eurybiades (Spartan)

• While the Greek fleet was anchored at Salamis, the commanders of the various contingents held a series of war councils

• Questioned whether to keep the navy at Salamis or move it closer to the army at the Isthmus

• The Peloponnesians always wanted to defend the coastline closer to the Isthmus

• When they found out Athens had been burnt and the Persians were in Megara, the Peloponnesians wanted to sail away immediately

• When Themistocles heard of this decision he immediately requested a conference with Eurybiades and the other commanders

• Themistocles argues defending Greece at Salamis is best because 1. narrow waters 2. women and children will be protected 3. if we beat Persia at sea they won’t advance to attack you on the Isthmus and they will retreat; saving Megara, Aegina and Salamis

• Whether Themistocles threatened Eurybiades or not, he knew without the Athenian ships and those of Aegina and Megara, the Greeks couldn’t face the Persians at sea

• Themistocles left the meeting and put into effect a plan to deceive the Persians into the narrow straits , divide the force, and force the Greeks to stay at Salamis

• After the Persian fleet anchored off Phalerum, well outside the Straits of Salamis, Xerxes held a conference with his naval commanders

• He was faced with a number of problems:

  - Because the number of ships had been reduced drastically by storms he couldn’t afford to divide his fleet and send half to attack the Peloponnese

  - He needed to defeat the Greeks within the next few weeks before the autumn winds made it impossible to move supplies by sea

• Commanders knew Xerxes wanted to force a battle at once

• Only the Carian queen, Artemisia, disagreed

• Xerxes followed the advice of the majority but was impressed with Artemisia for her advice

• Command was given for the Persian fleet to make for the open sea and for the contingents to take up their respective positions at the entrance to the Straits of Salamis

• Xerxes took up a position on a cliff where he would be able to watch the battle and observe how his commanders and their crews fought

• He hoped the Greeks would quarrel amongst themselves or backstab each other

• Xerxes felt he only had to bide time for one of these to happen

• Themisocles sends his slave (Sicinnus) to tell the Persians the Greeks are at odds and planning to slip away

• Persian commanders reacted to the deception by:

- Dividing their fleet into three squadrons (Egyptians, Phoenicians and Ionians)

- Sending the Egyptian squadron to sail around Salamis to block the western exit and prevent the Greeks from escaping

- Putting a large force of soldiers on the islands of Psyttaleia to rescue Persian men and ships washed ashore during the fighting and to destroy any Greeks attempting to land

- Ordering the Ionians and Phoenicians to advance into the straits on opposite sides of the islet of Psyttaleia to block the eastern end of the channel

• Aristides (Athenian) told the Greek commanders that they were surrounded and it was impossible for the Peloponnesians to withdraw

• Themistocles made Aristides tell them as they wouldn't have believed him

• By the time the two navies had met in battle:

  - The Persians would have been rowing all night and would be extremely tired

  - The Greek squadrons were already in position, hidden behind two promontories (Persians sail into trap)

  - The Egyptian squadron was well out of contact with the rest of the Persian fleet and would take no part in the battle

• The Phoenicians led the Persian fleet into the straits and the Ionians brought up the rear

• There was confusion as the ships passed through the one-kilometre-wide narrows

  - Corinthians, who according to Herodotus sailed away in panic, may have been sent to guard against the Egyptians supposedly entering the western end of the straits

  - The Athenian ships faced the Phoenicians

  - Eurybiades and most of the squadron moved down the channel to overlap the Phoenicians and line up against the Ionians

  - The Aeginetans and Megarians appear to have been deployed to strike at the flank (side) of the Ionians

• Greeks could swim so survived by swimming back to Salamis

• Persians drowned

• Persians defeated

• Persians sailed for their headquarters at Samos (Asia Minor)

• The loss of so many ships left Persians without a supply line

• Mardonius and 300,000 moved north to spend the winter in Thessaly

• Persians planned to attack the Peloponnese in the spring

• Xerxes with a large military escort marched to Susa

• Greeks thought the battle of Salamis saved the Peloponnese

• Themistocles’ policy of developing Athens into a naval power was justified

• Victory at Salamis had an important effect on the future of democracy in Athens

• The opinion of the class of thetes, who manned the ships as rowers, would need to be considered by Athenians leaders in the future

}}Plataea}}

• First Phase:

  - Mardonius chose the area near Plataea because it was good cavalry country and was close to the city of Thebes which had gone over to the Persians

  - Persian troops built a stockade about 900 acres in area extending along the river

  - They could retire to the protection of this fort if they were defeated

  - Mardonius camped his men along the Asopus River facing the mountain passes and foothills where the Greeks would emerge

  - Greeks descended from the Cithaeron Ranges and took up positions in the lower foothills facing the Persians on the other side of the river

  - Spartans were on the right wing and the the Athenians on the left

  - Centre were the other troops, the Peloponnesians next to the Spartans and the Megarians and other Greeks next to the Athenians

  - Greeks would move no further out onto the plain

  - Mardonius decided to send his cavalry, under leadership of Masistius, across the river to harass the Greeks troops as they emerged from the mountains

  - Squadron after squadron of cavalry rode against the Greeks as they took up their positions

  - In the fighting that ensued, Masistius was killed and the cavalryretreated after failing to claim their leaders body

  - Despite their serious setback, the Persian infantry did not attempt to cross the river at this point

  - As a morale booster to their men, the Greek commanders put the body of Masistius on a cart and paraded it along their lines

• Second Phase:

  - Spartan commander: Pausanias, decided to move his troops to the west, closer to the Asopus Ridge

  - This gave the Greeks room to move, allowed food convoys to unload behind the lines and gave them access to water supplies

  - However, Mardonius made life difficult for the Greeks by continually sending his cavalry across the river to prevent them from drawing water from the river

  - The thirsty Greek troops were forced to rely solely on water from the Gargaphia Spring

  - Acting on advice from the Thebans, Mardonius then sent his cavalry to intercept the wagons and escorts bringing food supplies to the Greeks troops

  - Persians slaughtered 500 animals and drove the rest towards their own lines

  - On the 12th day, Mardonius mounted archers rode around the Spartan camp and fouled the Gargaphia Spring

  - Persian infantry still didn't cross the Asopus River

• Third Phase:

}}Mycale}}

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