Chapter 18 Packets (AI)

What replaced agriculture as the leading source of economic growth in the U.S. forty years after the Civil War?

Manufacturing

By 1900, how much more goods existed per person compared to 1860?

Three times as many

What types of products did manufacturers produce before the Civil War?

Textiles, clothing, leather products, processed agricultural and natural resources

What heavy industries began to gain prominence?

Steel, iron, petroleum

What are 'producer's goods'?

Goods intended for other producers rather than the consumer

Give two examples of producer's goods.

Farming machinery, steel rails

Why was iron production slow and expensive?

Iron was soft and not durable, wearing out quickly on railroads

What invention revolutionized the iron industry?

The Bessemer Converter

What is the Bessemer Process?

Transforming iron into steel by forcing air through liquid iron

What were three dramatic changes in the steel industry due to the Bessemer Process?

New forms of vertical organization, production soared, prices fell

What new goods and demands did the production of steel create?

Nails, wire, needles

What power source did early manufacturers depend on before steam?

Water power

What percentage of the nation's industrial energy supply was provided by steam engines by 1900?

80%

Who were key inventors that contributed to the development of electricity as a power source?

Thomas Edison and George Westinghouse

What incentives did counties and cities offer for railroad construction?

Donated land for stations, buying railroad stock, loans, and tax breaks

How much did British, French, and German investors contribute to the railroad system?

$10 billion

What challenges did big businesses face compared to small businesses?

High costs for maintaining equipment, heavy debt

What are 'rebates' in the context of railroads?

Cheaper fares in exchange for all of a company's business

What are 'pools' and why were they unsuccessful?

Informal agreements to set rates; failed due to companies disregarding agreements

What was the first action railroad leaders took when costs rose?

Slashing workers' wages

What is the McCallum system?

A system that made railroad management more profitable with clear responsibility

How many American factories had workforces of 500-1000 workers by 1900?

More than 1000 factories

What is vertical integration and who used it?

Owning all stages of production; used by Andrew Carnegie

What is horizontal integration and who used it?

Combining similar businesses; used by John D. Rockefeller

What is a monopoly?

A company that controls nearly all of a specific industry

What are three advantages of incorporation?

Able to raise funds, limited liability, longevity

What caused the economic downturns in the two depressions affecting the American economy?

Collapsing land values, unsound banking practices, changes in money supply

What was the domino effect that created an economic downward spiral?

Manufacturers flooded market -> sales slowed -> profit declined -> bankruptcies

What were the outcomes of the economic downturns?

Millions lost jobs, thousands of businesses bankrupt, many faced starvation

What was the environmental impact of industrial pollution?

Toxic soil, polluted rivers, killed marine life

What percentage of Americans lived in cities in 1870 and by 1900?

25% in 1870; 40% by 1900

Was the high birth rate the reason for city growth?

False

What was the infant death rate comparison between cities and rural areas?

Twice as high in cities

What caused the 'PUSH' for rural Americans to move to cities?

Modernization of agricultural life

What were the 'PULL' factors encouraging rural emigration to cities?

Good jobs, better pay, city life

What is 'Literary Realism'?

A style that examines social problems in actual settings

What is the plot/lesson of Theodore Dreiser's 'Sister Carrie'?

A country girl faces harsh realities in Chicago

What is the plot/lesson of Stephen Crane's 'Maggie: A Girl of the Streets'?

Maggie turns to prostitution out of desperation

How did African American population demographics differ between Northern and Southern cities?

West/North: small portion; South: Atlanta 44%, Nashville 38%

What are some 'PUSH' factors for immigrants?

Overpopulation, famine, disease, land evictions, job loss, government persecution

What are Russian 'Pogroms'?

The official persecution of minorities, often Jews, in Russia to loot, destroy, rape, and murder people and property.

What does the term 'Golden Land' mean to an immigrant?

A place of better jobs, higher wages, and the promise of an easier life.

What is 'Chain Migration'?

Immigrants found work and living arrangements through networks of family and friends from their homeland.

What are characteristics of an immigrant?

Young, single men, often with few skills.

What exceptions exist for the characteristics of immigrants?

Jews came in family groups; Irish included women.

What fraction of immigrants returned to their native lands?

As many as 1/3.

What two non-European groups emigrated during this time?

Mexicans and Chinese.

What are 'PUSH' factors for immigration?

Overpopulation, depressed economies, unemployment, and crop failures.

What are 'PULL' factors for immigration?

Job opportunities, railroad construction, and gold/silver.

How much did the average middle-class income rise between 1865 and 1890?

About 30%.

What happened to the cost of living during this time?

It rose even faster than income.

How did families adapt to rising costs of living?

More family members held jobs and took in boarders.

What consumer products did Americans purchase more of due to increased standard of living?

Manufactured and packaged products from brand names like Hershey Bar, Cracker Jacks, Lipton Tea, and Jell-O.

What role did American women play in consumer spending?

They were the agents of the rise of consumer spending.

What activities did middle-class wives engage in due to the influx of immigrant servant girls?

Literary societies, reform clubs, and charity groups.

What activities did the Ladies Home Journal recommend for women?

Bicycling, golf, and tennis.

Who was the 'new woman' celebrated in Life magazine?

The Gibson girl, attractively active and slightly rebellious.

What was one effect of the depression of 1893 on women?

Many women became socially active investigating slum and factory conditions.

What job opportunities were available for educated middle-class women?

Nursing and clerking at department stores.

What percentage of college graduates were women in 1890?

13%.

What percentage of college graduates were women by 1900?

Nearly 20%.

What new women's colleges were established?

Smith, Vassar, Mount Holyoke, and Wellesley.

In which two professional areas were women less successful?

Medicine and Law.

What was one reason for the greater independence of American women?

They were having fewer babies.

What was the divorce rate trend among married women in 1900?

There was an increase in the divorce rate.

What did Theodore Roosevelt call the declining birthrate among whites?

Race suicide.

What was a male orator's argument regarding women's public roles in 1896?

A woman's brain involves emotions rather than intellect, disqualifying her from duties requiring intellect.

What did many men fear about female independence?

It threatened their own masculinity.

What laws were enacted to prepare for more professionalism by 1900?

Compulsory attendance laws.

How did the number of college students change from 1870 to 1900?

It nearly doubled from 53,000 to 101,000.

What did the word 'career' begin to mean in this context?

Specialized/professional career opportunities developed in many fields.

What are five job opportunities that expanded during this time?

Engineers, architects, law, chemistry, and metallurgists.

What did the social ethic of the age stress?

Economic rewards were available to anyone who fervently sought them.

What were John D. Rockefeller's early jobs?

Neighborhood farm and raising turkeys.

What was Andrew Carnegie's family background?

His mother was a washerwoman, and his father worked himself to death in the mills.

Who popularized the myth of the self-made man?

Horatio Alger, Jr.

What is the storyline evident in novels like Ragged Dick?

A low-life boy in rags seizes a chance opportunity, becomes a good boy, lands a job, and experiences good fortune.

What is a problem associated with the stories of the self-made man?

Success often depended on luck as much as pluck.

Who tended to have the skills, resources, and connections to move up in society?

Native born, middle-class whites or white Anglo-Saxon Protestants.

What was the typical background of a big businessman?

A white Anglo-Saxon Protestant from a middle or upper-class family.

What conditions did most working-class Americans face?

Long hours on dangerous factory floors for meager wages.

What percentage of the urban working class were immigrants in the late 1800s?

20% of the labor force and 40% of manufacturing laborers.

What is the working class hierarchy?

Top: native-born white protestants; 2nd: skilled northern European immigrants; 3rd: 'New immigrants' from southern & eastern Europe; Bottom: Blacks.

What does the term 'scab' mean in labor context?

A worker who accepts employment or replaces a union worker during a strike.

What effect did the rise of big business have on American workers?

More Americans became wage earners rather than independent artisans.

What determined pay for workers?

Volume determined pay, not hours.

What did the clustering of ethnic groups in certain types of work do?

It undermined working-class solidarity.

What were typical working hours for employees?

10 hours a day and 6 days a week.

What was the legal burden placed on workers regarding accidents?

The law placed the burden of avoiding accidents on workers.

How many workers died from industrial mishaps each year?

35,000.

Which industries were the most dangerous?

Iron mills, steel mills, and railroads.

What were some unhealthy and dangerous working conditions?

Few owners paid attention to regulatory rules.

What unhealthy conditions did workers face?

Poor ventilation, toxic dust, spoiled garbage, and diseases from mining.

How much did the Lawrence Manufacturing Co. compensate for a severed arm?

$66.71

What percentage of wealth did the top 1% of American families possess in 1890?

Over 25%

What was the income situation for working-class families in 1890?

Income did not cover the cost of survival.

What jobs were available to young unmarried working-class females?

Domestic service, garment industry, textiles, food processing, meatpacking, maid, cook, laundress, and prostitution.

What was the employment rate of married black women in 1880?

33% worked outside the home.

What was the immediate cause of the Great Railroad Strike of 1877?

Reduction of wages by railroad owners.

What type of intervention did the propertied class favor during strikes?

Intervention of the military.