Mass Communications Exam 2

Newsworthiness criteria over time

Expanded over time — now includes timeliness, proximity, conflict, prominence, human interest, and novelty

Hallmarks of a neutral news story

Factual, source-attributed, multi-sided, objective language — no opinion or emotional framing

What the public's right to know outweighs

Individual privacy rights

The two rights journalists straddle

The right to know vs. the right to privacy

Purpose of satirical news shows

To entertain and offer political commentary — not held to journalistic objectivity standards

Reuven Frank's 1963 storytelling techniques

Drama structure: beginning, middle, end — conflict, rising action, resolution

Basic criteria of newsworthiness

Timeliness, proximity, conflict, prominence, human interest, consequence, novelty

Main reason newspapers adopted neutral writing

Business — wire stories needed to sell across politically diverse papers

Why objectivity became historically valuable

Reaction to yellow journalism; gave credibility and enabled cross-market distribution

Underlying subjective values in American journalism

Suspicion of power, rooting for the underdog, democratic participation, free flow of information

Pastoralism

Favoring the small over the large and the rural over the urban

Best method for journalists to reach ethical decisions

Case-by-case — applying multiple ethical frameworks per situation

Characteristics of modern journalism

Objectivity-driven, official-source reliant, conflict-focused, professionally gatekept, separates news from opinion

Pack journalism

Reporters aggressively staking out or chasing the same subject en masse to get a scoop

Why local TV newscasts look alike since the 1970s

News consultants standardized formats, sets, and on-air styles industry-wide to boost ratings

Happy talk

Scripted or ad-libbed banter between anchors and reporters before and after segments

TV equivalent of a newspaper quote

Sound bite

Tweeting and blogging as journalism

Participatory (citizen) journalism — public contribution outside traditional outlets

Characteristics of public journalism

Community-focused, solutions-oriented, citizen-participatory, prioritizes everyday people, aims to strengthen democracy

How public journalism differs from modern journalism

Active citizen involvement in agenda-setting vs. detached observation — participation over reporting

Essay Question:

What is "public journalism"? What are 2 potential benefits & 2 potential criticisms of public journalism?

Definition | Journalists take an active role in democracy by involving citizens in identifying issues and solutions rather than just reporting.

Benefit 1 | Increases civic engagement — gives everyday people a voice in the news agenda.

Benefit 2 | More relevant coverage — focuses on community issues over elite or institutional agendas.

Criticism 1 | Compromises objectivity — advocacy blurs the line between journalism and activism.

Criticism 2 | Oversimplifies issues — favors community consensus over difficult, nuanced truths.

Essay Question:

How has convergence with the Internet changed demands on traditional print and broadcast journalists?

Essay Question:

Name and explain at least three elements that contribute to the newsworthiness of an event.

Founding book in American media studies

Public Opinion by Walter Lippmann (1922)

What social psychology studies measure

How individuals are affected by outside forces, including media messages

Why media effects research first emerged

Concerns about propaganda, particularly the influence of film, radio, and WWI/WWII messaging on the public

Minimal-effects model

Media largely reinforces existing beliefs and behaviors rather than changing them

Survey research vs. experimental research

Survey research measures attitudes and behaviors in large populations via questionnaires; experimental research uses controlled conditions and a control group to test cause-and-effect

Primary method to measure TV violence

Content analysis — systematically categorizing and counting violent acts across a sample of programming

Agenda-setting theory

The media's ability to influence which issues the public considers important, not what to think but what to think about

Cultivation effect theory

Heavy TV viewing leads audiences to perceive the real world as more dangerous and similar to the TV world than it actually is

What started the scientific study of mass media

Interest in the effects of propaganda and persuasion, particularly following WWI

"Question of the day" polls

Unscientific polls — also called pseudo-polls; not representative of the general population

Hypodermic-needle model's opposite

The minimal-effects model — hypodermic-needle assumes media has powerful direct effects; minimal-effects says the opposite

Selective exposure

The tendency for people to seek out only media outlets and messages that confirm their existing views

Best answer for how media affects individuals

It depends — effects vary based on individual differences, context, and the type of media consumed

Research model asking "Why do we use media?"

Uses and gratifications model

Research method that uses a control group

Experimental research

Study that tracks changes in a population over time

Longitudinal study

Four steps of social learning theory

1) Attention — observer notices the behavior; 2) Retention — behavior is remembered; 3) Motor reproduction — observer is capable of replicating it; 4) Motivation — observer has reason to reproduce it

Theory that minority opinion holders stay silent

Spiral of silence — fear of social isolation causes people to withhold views they believe are unpopular

Third-person effect

The belief that other people are more influenced by media messages than oneself

James Carey's definition of communication

A symbolic process whereby reality is produced, maintained, repaired, and transformed

Essay Question:

Explain the concept of agenda setting in the media and give an example of it.

Essay Question:

Identify and explain the four steps in the social learning theory

U.S. model of free expression

The libertarian model — one of the most permissive in the world, prioritizing minimal government restriction on speech and press

Impact of the Sedition Act on the First Amendment

It severely restricted First Amendment protections by making it a crime to criticize the government, showing that constitutional protections can be suspended during wartime

U.S. court response to a pre-publication obscenity or libel violation

Courts would issue a prior restraint — a court order blocking publication before it occurs, though this is rare and disfavored

Libel

False and harmful statements of fact, published or broadcast, that damage a person's reputation

When parodies and insults of public figures are not protected

When they contain a false statement of fact presented as true — satire clearly understood as opinion is protected

Standard obscenity case

Miller v. California (1973) — established a three-part community standards test, though it is applied locally, not uniformly nationwide

Shield laws for journalists

Laws in many states that protect journalists from being compelled to reveal confidential sources in court; there is no federal shield law

Print vs. broadcast media under the First Amendment

Broadcast media is subject to greater government regulation (via the FCC) due to use of the public airwaves; print media receives stronger First Amendment protection with virtually no content regulation

Maximum FCC fine for indecent broadcast incidents

Up to $325,000 per incident per station

Press model associated with today's mainstream U.S. news media

The social responsibility model — press freedom paired with an obligation to serve the public interest

Model tolerating all forms of speech including pornography

The libertarian model

Publication Nixon tried to block in 1971

The Pentagon Papers — a classified Defense Department history of U.S. involvement in Vietnam

What constitutes "clear and present danger"

Speech or publication that poses an immediate, serious threat to national security — a very high legal bar rarely met

Laws making it a federal crime to disrupt the war effort

The Espionage Act (1917) and the Sedition Act (1918)

1976 copyright extension period

Life of the author plus 50 years (later extended to life plus 70 years by the Sonny Bono Act in 1998)

What public figures must prove to sue for libel

Actual malice — that the news medium knew the statement was false or acted with reckless disregard for the truth

Protection for reporters covering court proceedings

Qualified privilege — statements made in official court proceedings are protected against libel

Privacy rights of a private citizen

Private citizens have stronger privacy protections than public figures; they can sue for intrusion, false light, appropriation of name/likeness, and public disclosure of private facts

Why boxing films were banned from interstate transport in 1912

Racist fears that footage of Black heavyweight champion Jack Johnson defeating white opponents would incite racial unrest

U.S. movie rating system as an example of

Self-regulation — a voluntary industry system to avoid government censorship

Creator of the "seven dirty words" routine

George Carlin — his 1973 routine led to an FCC case (FCC v. Pacifica) establishing safe harbor rules limiting indecent content to late-night hours (generally 10pm–6am)

Essay Question:

Why is the case of New York Times v. Sullivan so significant in First Amendment history?

Essay Question:

Name and explain the purpose of each clause of the first amendment

Essay Question:

Identify the test for determining if something is obscene and explain each of test elements used.