Section 8: Form and Function

anatomy

study of bioogical form of an organism

Physiology

study of biological functions an organism performs

different species’ adaptations to a similar environmental challenge

Evolutionary convergence reflects what?

cells surface area

rate of exchange with environment is proportional to what?

cell volume

Amount of exchanged material is proportional to what?

1. waste

2. nutrients

3. gases

kinds of materials that must be exchanged across animal cell membranes [3]

tissues

cells organized that have a function

pancreas

example of organ that belongs to more than one system

1. epithelial

2. connective

3. muscle

4. nervous

four main kinds of tissues

epithelial tissue

tissue covers outside of body and lines organs and cavities within body

1. cuboidal

2. columnar

3. squamous

epithelial cell shapes [3]

1. simple (single layer)

2. stratified [multiple tiers of cells]

3. pseudostratifed [single layer of varying length cells]

arrangement of epithelial cells can be[3]

Connective tissue

tissue that binds and supports other tissues

cells are sparsely packed scattered through extracellular matrix

how are connective tissue cells joined

fibres in a liquid, jelly-like, or solid foundation

ECM consists of :

1. collagenous fibres

2. elastic fibres

3. reticular fibres

three types of connective tissues

PRotein

conenctive tissue fibres are made up of

strength and flexibility

collagenous fibres provide:

stretches and snaps back to its original lenghth

elestic fbres function:

joins connective tissue to adjacent tissues

reticiular fibres function

1. fibroblasts

2. macrophages

cells within connective tissue [2[]

fibroblasts

CT cells that secrete the protein of etracellular fibres

macrophages

cells within CT that are involved in immune system

1. loose CT

2. cartilage

3. tendons and ligaments

4. adipose tissue

5. blood

6. bone

6 major connective tissues:

binds epithelia to underlying tissues and holds organs in place

where is loose CT found

stores fat for insulation ad fuel

apidpore tissue fuction

fibrous CT connects muscles to bones

tendon function

fibrous CT which connects bones at joints

ligament function:

muscle

tissue consists of long cells which contract in resonse to nerve signals

muscle fibres

long muscle cells

1. skeletal muscle

2. smooth

3. cardiac

three types of muscle tissue

skeletal muscle striated muscle

muscle responsible for voluntary movement

smooth muscle

mscle responsible fo rinvoluntary activities

Nervous tissue

tissue senses stimuli and transmits signals throughout the animal

neurons

glial cells

nervous tissue contains [2]

neurons

cells that transmits nerve impulses

glial cells or glia

cells that help nourish, insulate, and replenish neurons

1. endocrine

2. nervous

control and coordination within a body depends on these two systems

relatively slow acting but can have long-lasting effects

hormone action speed:

very fast.

nerve signal speed

depends on the signal’s pathway, not the type of signal. transmits information between very specific locations

information conveyed by the nervous system depends on what?

1. neurons

2. muscle cells

3. endocrine cells

4. exocrine cells

nerve impulses can be received by: [4]

Regulators

uses internal control mechanisms to moderate internal change in face of external, environmental fluctuation

Conformer

allows internal condition to vary with certain external changes

homeostasis

“steady state” or internal balance regardless of external environment

fluctuations are above or below a set point serve as a stimulus.

these are detected by a sensor

triggers a response

the response returns the variable to the set point

desribe homeostatic balance: [4]

negative feedback, where buidlup of end product shuts the system off

homeostasis is maintained by this type of feedback

positive feedback

feedback amplifies a stimulus and does not contribute to homeostasis in animals

aclimatization

homeostasis adjusts to changes in external environment

Circadian rhythms

governs physiological changes that occur roughly every 24 hours

animals and plants

circadian rhythms occur in which organisms

thermoregulation

process by which animals maintain an internal temperature within a tolerant range

endothermic

animals that generate head by metabolism

1. birds

2. mammals

endotherm examples [2]

ectothermic

animals that gain heat from external sources

1. most invertebrates

2. fishes

3. amphibians

4. nonavian reptiles

ectotherms include: [4]

Endotherms

organisms that are active at a greater range of external temperatures

ectotherm

organisms that tolerate greater variation in internal temperature

endothermy

which is more eneretically expensive? endothermy or exothermy

1. radiation

2. evaporation

3. convection

4. conduction

organisms exchange heat by four physical processes

1. skin

2. hair

3. nails

integumentary system includes: [3]

1. insulation

2. circulatory adaptations

3. cooling by evaporative heat loss

4. behavioural responses

5. adjusting metabolic heat production

five adaptations that help animals thermoregulate:

insulation

thermoregulation mechanism that reduces heat flow between animal in environment

1. skin

2. feathers

3. fur

4. blubber

insulation mechanisms:

1. vasoconstriction

2. vasodilation

circulatory adaptations that can affect thermoregulation:

1. panting

2. sweating or pathing

mechanisms for evaporative heat loss (evaporation of water through skin)

moistens the skin, helping to cool an animal down

how does evaporation help cool animals down

postures that minimize or maximize absorption of solar heat

behavioural responses to heat:

thermogenesis

ajustment of metabolic heat production to maintain body temperature

muscle activity such as moving or shivering

thermogenesis increased by:

hormones cause mitochondria to increase metabolic activity

nonshivering thermogenesis takes place when:

hypothalamus

thermoreglation is controlled by this region of the brain

a change to the set point for the biological thermostat

fever is a result of:

Bioenergetics

the overall flow and transformation of energy in an animal

how much food an animal needs

bioenergetics determines what?

1. size

2. activity

3. environment

bioenergetics relates to an animal’s: [3]

1. body growth and repair

2. synthesis of storage materials such as fat

3. production of gametes

biosynthesis includes: [3]

metabolic rate

amount of energy an animal uses in a unit time

1. an animals heat loss

2. the amount of oxygen consumed or CO2 produced

metabolic rate is determined by:

basal metabolic rate

metabolic rate of an endotherm and a comfortable resting temperature

Standard metabolic rate

metabolic rate of an ectotherm at rest at a specific temperature

ectotherms have much lower metabolic rate than endotherms of a comparable size

relative metabolic rate of ectotherms

size

activity

two factors that affect metabolic rate

proportional to body to mass to power of ¾ (m^(3/4)). Smaller animals have higher metabolic rates per gram than larger animals

Metabolic rate is proportional to

torpor

physiological state in which activity low and metabolism decreases

Save energy while avoiding difficult and dangerous conditions

torpor enables animals to:

hibernation

long term torpor, adaptation to winter cold and food scarcity

estivation

summer torpor allows animals to survive long period of high temperatures and scarce water