PSYA01 Midterm Review

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199 Terms

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Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mind.

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Empirical observation

The process of gathering knowledge through direct observation and experience.

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Behavior

Any observable action, including words, gestures, responses, and biological activity.

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Mind

The contents of conscious experience, including sensations, perceptions, thoughts, and emotions.

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Dualism

The belief that the mind and body are separate entities.

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Translational research

The application of basic research findings to solve practical problems.

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Basic research

Research aimed at understanding fundamental principles of behavior and mind.

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Applied research

Research aimed at using psychological principles to solve practical problems.

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Clinical psychology

The branch of psychology focused on identifying, preventing, and relieving psychological distress or dysfunction.

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Nature vs Nurture

The debate about the relative influence of genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) on human behavior and development.

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Evolutionary psychology

The study of how natural selection has shaped human behavior and cognition.

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First Psychology Laboratory

The laboratory established by Wilhelm Wundt in 1879 at the University of Leipzig, Germany, considered the birthplace of modern psychology.

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Structuralism

A psychological approach that aimed to study the structure of the mind by breaking it down into elementary parts.

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Functionalism

A psychological approach that focused on the purpose of mental processes and their adaptive functions.

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Behaviorism

A psychological approach that emphasized the study of observable behavior and rejected the study of the mind.

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Cognitive Revolution

A shift in psychology away from behaviorism and towards the study of mental processes and cognition.

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Introspection

A method used in structuralism that involved self-reporting one's own conscious experiences.

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CT scan

A neuroimaging technique that uses X-rays to create detailed images of the brain.

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Freud

Sigmund Freud, a neurologist from Vienna who founded psychoanalysis.

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Psychoanalysis

A therapeutic approach developed by Freud that focuses on the influence of the unconscious mind and uses techniques like free association and dream analysis.

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Humanists

Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, psychologists who developed the humanistic perspective in psychology.

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Positive Psychology

A branch of psychology pioneered by Martin Seligman that focuses on the positive aspects of human nature and capacity for change.

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Ultimate Explanations

Explanations that appeal to evolution and describe the long-term reasons for behavior.

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Proximate Explanations

Explanations that describe more immediate, non-evolutionary reasons for behavior.

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Ultimate Cause

The long-term reason or function behind a behavior.

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Proximate Cause

The immediate reason or trigger for a behavior.

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Evolutionary Influences

The impact of evolution on behavior, including considerations of gene-level behavior and environmental conditions.

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Gene Level

The level at which behavior is influenced by genetics and the passing on of genes.

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Cultural Influences

The impact of culture on behavior, including differences and similarities across cultures.

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Intersectionality

The overlapping of a person's multiple identities and cultures, which can shape their experiences.

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WEIRD Bias

The over-reliance on samples from Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic populations in psychological research, limiting the generalizability of findings.

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Ethnocentrism

The belief that one's own culture is superior to others, leading to a tendency to evaluate other cultures based on one's own standards and values.

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Cultural Imposition

Imposing one's own cultural values onto members of another culture, assuming they are universally applicable or preferable.

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Overgeneralization

Assuming that cultural behaviors, beliefs, or practices observed in a subset of a population apply to the entire population.

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Researcher Bias

The influence of a researcher's own cultural background, beliefs, and values on the formulation and interpretation of research.

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Translation and Linguistic Issues

Challenges that arise when directly translating research instruments or questions from one language to another, potentially leading to misunderstandings.

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Cultural Blindness

Ignoring or being unaware of cultural differences and treating everyone as if they are the same.

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Outgroup Homogeneity Bias

Perceiving members of an outgroup as more similar to each other than they actually are, while seeing members of one's ingroup as more diverse.

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Cultural Relativism

The belief that all cultural beliefs, values, and practices have equal validity, which can make it challenging to address harmful or problematic behaviors within certain cultural contexts.

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Biological Influences

The impact of genes and predispositions on behavior, as well as the underlying biological processes that contribute to behavior.

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Cognitive Influences

The role of individual learning, experience, and cultural influence on mental processes and behavior.

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Methods

The techniques and approaches used in psychological research to generate theories, hypotheses, and determine causal relationships.

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Post-truth

Relating to circumstances in which objective facts are less influential in shaping public opinion than appeals to emotion and personal belief.

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Hypothesis

An educated guess based on data that acts as a foundation for further investigation.

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Theory

An explanation of a natural phenomenon that is validated through observation and experimentation.

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Scientific Method

A systematic approach to conducting research that involves generating a hypothesis, gathering information, identifying the problem, analyzing data, and drawing conclusions.

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Hypothesis

An informed guess or prediction about the relationship between variables in a research study.

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Data analysis

The process of examining and interpreting data to draw conclusions and make inferences.

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Experiment

A research method in which variables are manipulated and controlled to determine cause-and-effect relationships.

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Naturalistic observation

A descriptive research method in which behavior is observed in its natural setting without any manipulation.

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Participant observation

A descriptive research method in which the researcher becomes a member of the group being studied and observes their behavior.

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Survey

A research method in which participants answer standardized questions to gather specific information.

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Case study

An in-depth analysis of a single person, group, or situation to gather detailed information.

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Ethics

A set of general principles that guide the treatment and respect of participants in research studies.

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Informed consent

The process of obtaining permission from participants to participate in a study after providing them with all relevant information about the study.

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Deception

When experimenters do not reveal the true nature of the study to participants at the beginning before their participation.

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Validity

The accuracy or truthfulness of a measurement or research study in measuring what it is intended to measure.

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Reliability

The consistency or repeatability of a measurement or research study in producing consistent results under the same conditions.

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Representative sample

A sample that accurately reflects the larger population from which it is drawn.

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Random selection

The process of selecting participants from a population in such a way that every member has an equal chance of being selected.

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Operational definitions

Definitions of variables in research that are quantifiable and observable, allowing for measurement and observation.

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Qualitative analysis

Focuses on gathering descriptive and non-numerical data to identify categories and patterns.

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Hawthorne effect

The phenomenon where people may change their behavior when they know they are being observed.

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Hindsight bias

The tendency for people to overestimate their ability to have predicted an outcome after it has occurred.

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Descriptive Methods

Different ways of doing research in psychology, including naturalistic observation, participant observation, survey, and case study.

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Correlational Design

A research design that examines the relationship between two variables and provides information about the direction and strength of the correlation.

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Experimental Design

A research design that allows for the establishment of a cause-and-effect relationship between variables by manipulating an independent variable and measuring behavior.

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Confounding variables

Variables other than studying that may influence the relationship between the amount of time spent studying and better grades.

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Correlation

A statistical measure that indicates the relationship between two variables, but does not imply causation.

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Sample Selection

Different methods of selecting participants for a research study, including simple random sample, stratified random sample, non-random sample, and convenience sample.

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Experimental Group

The group in an experiment that is exposed to the manipulated condition of the independent variable.

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Control Group

The group in an experiment that is not exposed to the manipulated condition of the independent variable and is used for comparison.

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Placebo Group

The group in an experiment that believes they are receiving the manipulated condition of the independent variable, but are actually receiving a placebo.

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Placebo Effect

When a participant's expectations, rather than the independent variable, result in a change in the dependent variable.

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Central tendency

Measures of the average or middle point of a dataset, including mean, median, and mode.

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Spread of Data

Measures of the range and variability of data, including range, variance, and standard deviation.

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Inferential statistics

Statistical methods used to compare experimental groups and make generalizations about the population.

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Neurons

Cells specialized for communication in the nervous system.

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Dendrites

Branch-like structures on neurons that receive messages and initiate electrical activity.

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Axons

Structures on neurons that conduct electrical activity and release chemical neurotransmitters.

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Myelin sheath

A protective covering around axons that speeds up electrical activity.

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Synapse

The fluid-filled space between neurons where communication occurs through the release and reception of neurotransmitters.

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Action potential

The electrical signal that travels along the axon of a neuron.

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Sensory neurons

Neurons that carry information from the senses to the brain.

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Motor neurons

Neurons that carry information from the brain to the muscles.

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Interneurons

Neurons that convey signals within the nervous system.

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Multipolar neurons

Neurons with many dendrites.

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Bipolar neurons

Neurons with one dendrite and one axon.

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Monopolar neurons

Neurons with only one projection from the soma, which branches to form the axon and dendrite.

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Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons in the brain and body.

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Receptors

Proteins on the surface of neurons that bind to specific neurotransmitters, allowing them to transmit signals.

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Excitatory

Neurotransmitters that increase the probability of a neuron becoming active.

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Acetylcholine (Ach)

An excitatory neurotransmitter involved in muscle movement, learning, and memory.

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Glutamate

An excitatory neurotransmitter involved in learning and memory.

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Serotonin

An excitatory neurotransmitter involved in mood regulation, sleep, and appetite.

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Dopamine

An excitatory neurotransmitter involved in reward, motivation, and movement.

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Inhibitory

Neurotransmitters that decrease the probability of a neuron becoming active.

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Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

An inhibitory neurotransmitter involved in reducing anxiety and promoting relaxation.

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Glycine

An inhibitory neurotransmitter involved in regulating motor functions and sensory processing.

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Agonist

A drug that replicates the action of a specific receptor.