PSYA01 Midterm Review

Psychology

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mind.

Empirical observation

The process of gathering knowledge through direct observation and experience.

Behavior

Any observable action, including words, gestures, responses, and biological activity.

Mind

The contents of conscious experience, including sensations, perceptions, thoughts, and emotions.

Dualism

The belief that the mind and body are separate entities.

Translational research

The application of basic research findings to solve practical problems.

Basic research

Research aimed at understanding fundamental principles of behavior and mind.

Applied research

Research aimed at using psychological principles to solve practical problems.

Clinical psychology

The branch of psychology focused on identifying, preventing, and relieving psychological distress or dysfunction.

Nature vs Nurture

The debate about the relative influence of genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) on human behavior and development.

Evolutionary psychology

The study of how natural selection has shaped human behavior and cognition.

First Psychology Laboratory

The laboratory established by Wilhelm Wundt in 1879 at the University of Leipzig, Germany, considered the birthplace of modern psychology.

Structuralism

A psychological approach that aimed to study the structure of the mind by breaking it down into elementary parts.

Functionalism

A psychological approach that focused on the purpose of mental processes and their adaptive functions.

Behaviorism

A psychological approach that emphasized the study of observable behavior and rejected the study of the mind.

Cognitive Revolution

A shift in psychology away from behaviorism and towards the study of mental processes and cognition.

Introspection

A method used in structuralism that involved self-reporting one's own conscious experiences.

CT scan

A neuroimaging technique that uses X-rays to create detailed images of the brain.

Freud

Sigmund Freud, a neurologist from Vienna who founded psychoanalysis.

Psychoanalysis

A therapeutic approach developed by Freud that focuses on the influence of the unconscious mind and uses techniques like free association and dream analysis.

Humanists

Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, psychologists who developed the humanistic perspective in psychology.

Positive Psychology

A branch of psychology pioneered by Martin Seligman that focuses on the positive aspects of human nature and capacity for change.

Ultimate Explanations

Explanations that appeal to evolution and describe the long-term reasons for behavior.

Proximate Explanations

Explanations that describe more immediate, non-evolutionary reasons for behavior.

Ultimate Cause

The long-term reason or function behind a behavior.

Proximate Cause

The immediate reason or trigger for a behavior.

Evolutionary Influences

The impact of evolution on behavior, including considerations of gene-level behavior and environmental conditions.

Gene Level

The level at which behavior is influenced by genetics and the passing on of genes.

Cultural Influences

The impact of culture on behavior, including differences and similarities across cultures.

Intersectionality

The overlapping of a person's multiple identities and cultures, which can shape their experiences.

WEIRD Bias

The over-reliance on samples from Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic populations in psychological research, limiting the generalizability of findings.

Ethnocentrism

The belief that one's own culture is superior to others, leading to a tendency to evaluate other cultures based on one's own standards and values.

Cultural Imposition

Imposing one's own cultural values onto members of another culture, assuming they are universally applicable or preferable.

Overgeneralization

Assuming that cultural behaviors, beliefs, or practices observed in a subset of a population apply to the entire population.

Researcher Bias

The influence of a researcher's own cultural background, beliefs, and values on the formulation and interpretation of research.

Translation and Linguistic Issues

Challenges that arise when directly translating research instruments or questions from one language to another, potentially leading to misunderstandings.

Cultural Blindness

Ignoring or being unaware of cultural differences and treating everyone as if they are the same.

Outgroup Homogeneity Bias

Perceiving members of an outgroup as more similar to each other than they actually are, while seeing members of one's ingroup as more diverse.

Cultural Relativism

The belief that all cultural beliefs, values, and practices have equal validity, which can make it challenging to address harmful or problematic behaviors within certain cultural contexts.

Biological Influences

The impact of genes and predispositions on behavior, as well as the underlying biological processes that contribute to behavior.

Cognitive Influences

The role of individual learning, experience, and cultural influence on mental processes and behavior.

Methods

The techniques and approaches used in psychological research to generate theories, hypotheses, and determine causal relationships.

Post-truth

Relating to circumstances in which objective facts are less influential in shaping public opinion than appeals to emotion and personal belief.

Hypothesis

An educated guess based on data that acts as a foundation for further investigation.

Theory

An explanation of a natural phenomenon that is validated through observation and experimentation.

Scientific Method

A systematic approach to conducting research that involves generating a hypothesis, gathering information, identifying the problem, analyzing data, and drawing conclusions.

Hypothesis

An informed guess or prediction about the relationship between variables in a research study.

Data analysis

The process of examining and interpreting data to draw conclusions and make inferences.

Experiment

A research method in which variables are manipulated and controlled to determine cause-and-effect relationships.

Naturalistic observation

A descriptive research method in which behavior is observed in its natural setting without any manipulation.

Participant observation

A descriptive research method in which the researcher becomes a member of the group being studied and observes their behavior.

Survey

A research method in which participants answer standardized questions to gather specific information.

Case study

An in-depth analysis of a single person, group, or situation to gather detailed information.

Ethics

A set of general principles that guide the treatment and respect of participants in research studies.

Informed consent

The process of obtaining permission from participants to participate in a study after providing them with all relevant information about the study.

Deception

When experimenters do not reveal the true nature of the study to participants at the beginning before their participation.

Validity

The accuracy or truthfulness of a measurement or research study in measuring what it is intended to measure.

Reliability

The consistency or repeatability of a measurement or research study in producing consistent results under the same conditions.

Representative sample

A sample that accurately reflects the larger population from which it is drawn.

Random selection

The process of selecting participants from a population in such a way that every member has an equal chance of being selected.

Operational definitions

Definitions of variables in research that are quantifiable and observable, allowing for measurement and observation.

Qualitative analysis

Focuses on gathering descriptive and non-numerical data to identify categories and patterns.

Hawthorne effect

The phenomenon where people may change their behavior when they know they are being observed.

Hindsight bias

The tendency for people to overestimate their ability to have predicted an outcome after it has occurred.

Descriptive Methods

Different ways of doing research in psychology, including naturalistic observation, participant observation, survey, and case study.

Correlational Design

A research design that examines the relationship between two variables and provides information about the direction and strength of the correlation.

Experimental Design

A research design that allows for the establishment of a cause-and-effect relationship between variables by manipulating an independent variable and measuring behavior.

Confounding variables

Variables other than studying that may influence the relationship between the amount of time spent studying and better grades.

Correlation

A statistical measure that indicates the relationship between two variables, but does not imply causation.

Sample Selection

Different methods of selecting participants for a research study, including simple random sample, stratified random sample, non-random sample, and convenience sample.

Experimental Group

The group in an experiment that is exposed to the manipulated condition of the independent variable.

Control Group

The group in an experiment that is not exposed to the manipulated condition of the independent variable and is used for comparison.

Placebo Group

The group in an experiment that believes they are receiving the manipulated condition of the independent variable, but are actually receiving a placebo.

Placebo Effect

When a participant's expectations, rather than the independent variable, result in a change in the dependent variable.

Central tendency

Measures of the average or middle point of a dataset, including mean, median, and mode.

Spread of Data

Measures of the range and variability of data, including range, variance, and standard deviation.

Inferential statistics

Statistical methods used to compare experimental groups and make generalizations about the population.

Neurons

Cells specialized for communication in the nervous system.

Dendrites

Branch-like structures on neurons that receive messages and initiate electrical activity.

Axons

Structures on neurons that conduct electrical activity and release chemical neurotransmitters.

Myelin sheath

A protective covering around axons that speeds up electrical activity.

Synapse

The fluid-filled space between neurons where communication occurs through the release and reception of neurotransmitters.

Action potential

The electrical signal that travels along the axon of a neuron.

Sensory neurons

Neurons that carry information from the senses to the brain.

Motor neurons

Neurons that carry information from the brain to the muscles.

Interneurons

Neurons that convey signals within the nervous system.

Multipolar neurons

Neurons with many dendrites.

Bipolar neurons

Neurons with one dendrite and one axon.

Monopolar neurons

Neurons with only one projection from the soma, which branches to form the axon and dendrite.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons in the brain and body.

Receptors

Proteins on the surface of neurons that bind to specific neurotransmitters, allowing them to transmit signals.

Excitatory

Neurotransmitters that increase the probability of a neuron becoming active.

Acetylcholine (Ach)

An excitatory neurotransmitter involved in muscle movement, learning, and memory.

Glutamate

An excitatory neurotransmitter involved in learning and memory.

Serotonin

An excitatory neurotransmitter involved in mood regulation, sleep, and appetite.

Dopamine

An excitatory neurotransmitter involved in reward, motivation, and movement.

Inhibitory

Neurotransmitters that decrease the probability of a neuron becoming active.

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

An inhibitory neurotransmitter involved in reducing anxiety and promoting relaxation.

Glycine

An inhibitory neurotransmitter involved in regulating motor functions and sensory processing.

Agonist

A drug that replicates the action of a specific receptor.