scom chapter 4

language

structured system of symbols for communicating meaning

4 elements all languages share

1. structure

2. productivity

3. displacement

4. self-reflexiveness

grammar

set of rules that specify how the units of language can be meaningfully combined

grammar is divided into 4 categories

1. phonology

2. morphology

3. syntax

4. semantics

phonemes

individual units of sound that compose a specific spoken language (consonants, vowels, and combinations like ch, th)

phonology

part of grammar that describes the patterns of sound in a language

morpheme

smallest unit of meaning in a language, created by combining phonemes

morphology

part of grammar that describes how morphemes are constructed meaningfully from phonemes

free morpheme

standing alone word (friend), unit of meaning

bound morpheme

has no meaning until attached to a stand-alone word (prefixes and suffixes)

syntax

rules that govern combing words into phrases and phrases into sentences

typical english word order

subject-verb-object

semantics

set of rules that governs the meaning of words and sentences

symbols

representations of objects, events, ideas, or relationships

referents

objects, events, ideas, or relationships referred to by the words

lexicon

the total vocabulary

words will not become part of the english vocal without…

conventionality (common agreement to use these words with specific meanings)

productivity

capacity of language to transform a small number of phonemes into whatever words, phrases, and sentences that you require to communicate your thoughts and feelings

displacement

ability to use language to talk about objects, ideas, events, and relations that do not exist in the physical here and now (unicorns, fairies, past vacays, abstract ideas)

sel-refelxive

ability to use language to communicate about language (chapter in book is example)

abstracting

process whereby we formulate increasingly vague, general conceptions of our world by leaving out details associated with objects, events, and ideas

4 levels of abstraction

1. sense experience

2. description

3. inference

4. judgement

sense experience of abstraction

selective and limited, small details left out

descriptions of abstraction

describing sense experience, verbal reports that sketch what you perceive from your senses (relationship description)

inferences of abstraction

conclusions about the unknown based on the known, guesses (ex is dating new person bc see them together)

judgements

subjective evaluations of objects, events, or ideas, positive or negative, right or wrong (bf is a generous person)

sapir-whorf hypothesis

2 versions of perspective:

1. linguistic determinism

2. linguistic relativity

linguistic determination

claims we are the prisoners of our native language, unable to think certain thoughts or perceive in certain ways because of the grammatical structure and lexicon of our language

linguistic relativity

claims that the grammar and lexicon of our native language powerfully influence, but do not imprison, our thinking and perception

masculine-generic gender references

words such as mankind, man, he, his; support the linguistic relativity perspective

label

name or descriptive word or phrase, can powerfully influence perceptions

framing

influence wording has on our perception of choices, narrows our perceptions

signal reaction

automatic, unthinking, emotional response to a symbol (reactions to slurs, hot subjects, vulgar language, etc.)

source of most signal reactions

connotative meaning

connotation

personal meaning, individual, subjective meaning of a word

3 dimensions of connotations

1. evaluation (good/bad)

2. potency (strong/weak)

3. activity (active/passive)

denotation

shared meaning, objective meaning of words commonly agreed to by members of a speech community and usually found in dictionary (rottweiler: large dog w short tail)

how to avoid problems of signal reactions and make language appropriate and effective

1. learn to follow signal reactions with semantic reactions (delayed thoughtful response that seeks to decipher the user's intended meaning of word)

2. refrain from using words that will trigger a signal reaction

false dichotomy

using either-or language to frame a choice as though only 2 opposing possibilities exist when at least a 3rd option is available

2 steps to avoid false dichotomies

1. think pluralistically: search for additional options

2. recognize degrees of difference when using language (use slightly, rarely, occasionally, etc.)

2 steps to prevent mislabeling

1. operationally define significant labels: ground a label by specifying which measurable behaviors or experiences are subsumed under the label and which are ruled out (specific/provide example)

2. apply the labels accurately once they have been operationalized

dead-level abstracting

practice of remaining stuck at one level of abstraction (stick with to either vague or concrete words)

3 ways to avoid dead-level abstraction

1. avoid by-passing: avoid assuming that everyone assigns the same meaning to a word without checking to see if it is true

2. operationally define abstract terms

3. use language flexibly: do not stick to vague or concrete

inferential error

a mistaken conclusion that results from the assumption that inferences are factual descriptions of reality instead of interpretations of varying accuracy made by individuals (4 people on train, kiss and slap)

2 ways to avoid inferential error

1. base inferences on a substantial quantity of info

2. base inferences on high-quality info

3 ways to promote misunderstanding

1. jargon

2. slang

3. euphemisms

jargon

specialized language of certain groups, verbal short-hand (lawyer terms, doctor terms for simple things)

2 guidelines for competent use of jargon

1. cut the use of jargon when conversing with someone who is unfamiliar

2. if jargon is necessary, operationalize the terms unfamiliar to the receiver

euphemism

form of linguistic novocain whereby word choices numb us to or camouflage unpleasant or offensive realities (passed away instead of dead)

2 ways of dealing competently with euphemisms

1. use them cautiously and wisely

2. expunge dangerous euphemisms

slang

highly informal words not in standard usage that are employed by group with common interest