WEEKLEY, "The National or the Social? Problems of nation-building in post-World War II Philippines."

How does Weekley define a nation-state?

A nation-state is a sovereign political unit recognized internationally but not necessarily socially unified or just

What is the minimal definition of a nation according to Weekley?

A unit within the international system of nation-states

Why is sovereignty alone an inadequate measure of a nation-state’s success?

Because formal independence does not guarantee social justice or popular legitimacy

How does Weekley suggest we measure nation-state success?

By whether the state meets the political and economic needs of its population

What indicates failure of the Philippine nation-state?

Citizen alienation and lack of moral connection to the state

What does Weekley mean by “institutional capacity”?

The formal bureaucratic structures of the state

Why does Weekley criticize reliance on institutional capacity?

Because institutions can exist without delivering justice

What is “cacique democracy”?

A system where elite families dominate politics despite democratic forms

How did post-Marcos democracy reflect cacique democracy?

It restored elite rule rather than transforming power relations

Why is elite continuity central to Weekley’s argument?

Because independence did not disrupt prewar power structures

How does nationalist discourse imagine the nation?

As unified

What role does nationalism play in anti-colonial movements?

It mobilizes people against a foreign colonizer

Why is anti-colonial nationalism initially effective?

Because it creates a clear external enemy

What happens to nationalist unity after independence?

It fractures as internal inequalities resurface

Why does post-colonial nationalism become problematic?

Because it masks class and social divisions

How do elites use nationalism after independence?

To legitimize their continued dominance

Why does independence not equal liberation for all?

Because elites capture the post-colonial state

How does Weekley connect nationalism to exclusion?

National unity narratives silence marginalized groups

How does this argument connect to Rafael?

Both show nationalism as elite-driven rather than popular

How does Savage Acts relate to this critique?

It shows how nationalist narratives erase violence and inequality

What assumption about national consciousness does Weekley challenge?

That it existed before the nation-state

Why does Weekley reject the idea of pre-existing national consciousness?

Because historical responses were fragmented and class-based

How does the Japanese occupation illustrate this?

Different groups responded with resistance or collaboration

Who resisted Japanese occupation?

Guerrilla groups like the Hukbalahap

Who collaborated with the Japanese?

Many Filipino elites

Why is elite collaboration important to Weekley’s argument?

It contradicts nationalist claims of unity

What does elite collaboration reveal about nationalism?

That it is shaped by material interests

How does Weekley conceptualize “the nation”?

As a political construction

Why is the nation not socially unified?

Because class and power divisions persist

What does this imply about nation-building?

That it reflects power relations more than shared identity

What role does the USA play in Weekley’s analysis?

A key external actor shaping postwar Philippine politics

Why did the US prefer working with Filipino elites?

They could maintain order and stability

What was the US priority after 1945?

Stability and anti-communism over democracy

How did the US maintain influence in the Philippines?

Through aid

What does Weekley mean by “shared interests”?

Alignment between US goals and elite Filipino interests

How does this relate to Rafael’s argument?

Both show governance through intermediaries

Why did the US defer to Filipino elites?

Because they preserved social order

How did US policy affect Philippine democracy?

It reinforced elite dominance

Why did US actions undermine development?

They supported elites who blocked reform

What kind of regimes did the US support?

Authoritarian or elite-dominated regimes

What are patronage politics?

A system exchanging political loyalty for material benefits

How did patronage politics function in the Philippines?

Elites used US resources to win elections

Why are patronage politics anti-democratic?

Accountability flows upward

What does frequent party-switching indicate?

Lack of ideological commitment

Why do political parties lack ideology?

They serve elite interests rather than policy goals

How does patronage affect reform?

It discourages structural change

Is the Philippines a democracy according to Weekley?

Formally yes

What does “voice from below” mean?

Participation by marginalized groups

Are voices from below included?

No

Why are popular voices excluded?

Because elites control institutions

How does Weekley describe political participation?

Highly unequal and elite-dominated

What does this mean for legitimacy?

The state lacks popular moral authority

Who was General Douglas MacArthur?

US general with major postwar authority in the Philippines

Why did MacArthur favor Filipino elites?

They ensured continuity and order

Why did MacArthur ignore collaboration?

He valued stability over justice

How did MacArthur undermine US policy?

By reinstating collaborators

What effect did this have on politics?

It restored prewar elite dominance

Who were considered “enemies from within”?

Communists and peasant movements

Why were the Hukbalahap targeted?

They challenged landlord and elite power

How were Huk veterans treated?

Disarmed and delegitimized

What does this reveal about nationalism?

That it excludes radical social movements

Why did insurgency continue?

Because grievances were unresolved

What role did landlords play postwar?

They raised rents and formed private armies

What is land reform?

Redistribution of land to reduce inequality

Why is land reform politically significant?

Land ownership underpins elite power

Was land reform enacted in the Philippines?

No

Why did elites oppose land reform?

It threatened their dominance

Why did the US oppose land reform?

Fear of communism and instability

How did McCarthyism affect reform?

It labeled reform as communist

What lesson did the US draw from defeating the Huks?

That reform was unnecessary

How does this pattern repeat under Marcos?

Repression without reform

Why are US military bases important in Weekley’s account?

They shaped US–Philippine relations

What did the US gain from the bases?

Power projection in Asia

What did Filipino elites gain?

Aid and political leverage

How did bases affect US tolerance of corruption?

They made the US overlook abuses

Why were bases politically controversial?

They symbolized dependency

How did leaders like Marcos use base negotiations?

To extract resources

What does this reveal about sovereignty?

It was compromised

What is import dependence?

Reliance on foreign goods for consumption

Why is import dependence a problem?

It undermines economic sovereignty

How did import substitution fail?

Industries relied on imported inputs

Who benefited from economic policy?

Elite family conglomerates

Why did no new bourgeoisie emerge?

Elites controlled economic access

What sector remained dominant?

Agriculture

Did economic policy reduce poverty?

No

How does Weekley describe the Philippine economy?

Structurally dependent and elite-controlled

What does food importation symbolize?

Failure of national development

What is Weekley’s overarching conclusion?

Nation-building without social reform reproduces inequality

Why does Weekley reject nationalism as a solution?

It ignores social justice

What warning does Weekley offer?

Against privileging national unity over social questions

How does this explain the Philippines in 2024?

Persistent post-colonial inequality