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Zygote

The single cell formed when a sperm fertilizes an egg, containing all genetic information for development.

Genes

Segments of DNA that carry instructions for building proteins and determining traits.

Enzymes

Proteins that speed up chemical reactions in the body.

Muscle fibres

Individual muscle cells that contract to produce movement.

Codon

A sequence of three nucleotides in DNA or RNA that codes for a specific amino acid.

DNA

The molecule that carries genetic instructions for growth, development, and functioning.

RNA

A molecule that carries instructions from DNA to help make proteins.

Amino acids

The building blocks of proteins.

Blastulation

The stage in embryonic development when a hollow ball of cells forms.

Gastrulation

The stage in embryonic development when three germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm) form.

Homeobox genes

Genes that control the body plan and the formation of tissues and organs during development.

Neural plate

A flat group of cells in the embryo that will develop into the nervous system.

Mesoderm

The middle layer of cells in an embryo that forms muscles, bones, and the circulatory system.

Endoderm

The inner layer of cells in an embryo that forms the gut, liver, pancreas, and lungs.

Ectoderm

The outer layer of cells in an embryo that forms skin, hair, nails, and the nervous system.

Primitive neuron

An early-stage neuron that has not fully developed or formed connections.

Mature neuron

A fully developed neuron capable of transmitting signals.

Histone

Proteins around which DNA winds to help package and organize it in the nucleus.

Neural tube

The structure in the embryo that develops into the brain and spinal cord.

Proliferation

The process of rapid cell division during development.

Migration

The movement of neurons to their correct positions in the developing nervous system.

Immunoglobulins

Proteins (antibodies) made by the immune system to recognize and fight infections.

Chemokines

Small proteins that signal immune cells to move to sites of infection or injury.

Differentiation

The process by which cells become specialized to perform specific functions.

Synaptogenesis

The formation of synapses between neurons during development.

Schwann cell

A cell in the peripheral nervous system that wraps around nerves to form myelin and support nerve development.

Oligodendrocytes

Cells in the central nervous system that form myelin for multiple neurons, supporting brain and spinal cord development.

Chemoaffinity hypothesis

Axons find specific target locations guided by chemical gradients.

Neurotrophin

A protein that helps neurons survive, grow, and form connections.

Nerve growth factor

A protein that supports the survival, growth, and maintenance of certain neurons.

Apoptosis

Programmed cell death that shapes tissues and the nervous system during development.

Neurogenesis

The process of generating new neurons.

Cortical differentiation

The process by which the cerebral cortex develops its specialized areas and functions.

Neuronal differentiation

The process by which immature cells develop into specialized neurons.

Ventricular system

A set of connected cavities in the brain that produce and contain cerebrospinal fluid.

Chromosomes

Structures of DNA and proteins that carry genetic information in cells.

Homozygous

Having two identical alleles for a specific gene.

Heterozygous

Having two different alleles for a specific gene.

Neural Darwinism

The theory that neural connections compete for survival, and only the most effective ones are maintained.

Dorsal

Refers to the top or back side of the body or brain.

Ventral

Refers to the bottom or front side of the body or brain.

Medial

Toward the midline of the body.

Lateral

Away from the midline of the body.

Anterior

Toward the front of the body.

Posterior

Toward the back of the body.

Ipsilateral

On the same side of the body.

Contralateral

On the opposite side of the body.

Proximal

Closer to the point of attachment or center of the body.

Distal

Further from the point of attachment or center of the body.

Central nervous system

The part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral nervous system

All nerves outside the brain and spinal cord.

Autonomic nervous system

Division of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary functions.

Somatic nervous system

Division of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary movement.

Grey matter

Brain tissue made up mainly of neuron cell bodies.

White matter

Brain tissue made up mainly of myelinated axons.

Reflex arcs

Neural pathways that mediate reflex actions.

Pineal gland

Endocrine gland that secretes melatonin and regulates sleep cycles.

Midbrain

Part of the brainstem involved in vision, hearing, and motor control.

Forebrain

The largest brain division, including cerebral cortex and limbic system.

Hindbrain

Brain region including cerebellum, pons, and medulla.

Cerebellum

Brain structure involved in coordination and balance.

Medulla

Brainstem structure controlling vital functions like breathing and heart rate.

Pons

Brainstem structure involved in sleep and arousal.

Tegmentum

Part of the midbrain involved in movement and reward.

Tectum

Dorsal part of the midbrain involved in visual and auditory reflexes.

Colliculus

Structure in the midbrain involved in sensory processing (visual or auditory).

Thalamus

Relay station for sensory information to the cortex.

Hypothalamus

Regulates homeostasis and links the nervous and endocrine systems.

Hippocampus

Structure involved in memory formation.

Amygdala

Structure involved in emotion processing, especially fear.

Corpus callosum

Bundle of fibers connecting the two hemispheres of the brain.

Gyrus

Ridge or fold of the brain.

Sulcus

Groove or indentation in the brain.

Lobes

Major divisions of the cerebral cortex.

Frontal lobe

Involved in decision making, motor control, and personality.

Parietal lobe

Processes sensory information related to touch and spatial awareness.

Temporal lobe

Involved in hearing, memory, and language.

Occipital lobe

Responsible for visual processing.

Postcentral sulcus

Groove located behind the primary somatosensory cortex.

Precentral sulcus

Groove located in front of the primary motor cortex.

Lateral sulcus

Separates the temporal lobe from frontal and parietal lobes.

Superior temporal sulcus

Involved in processing social and auditory information.

Inferior temporal sulcus

Involved in visual object recognition.

Cingulate sulcus

Groove separating the cingulate gyrus from other cortical areas.

Parieto-occipital fissure

Separates the parietal and occipital lobes.

Calcarine fissure

Contains the primary visual cortex.

Ventricles

Fluid-filled cavities in the brain.

Cerebral cortex

Outer layer of the brain involved in higher cognitive functions.

Basal ganglia

Group of nuclei involved in movement control.

Brainstem

Structure connecting the brain to the spinal cord, controlling basic functions.

Cerebrospinal fluid

Fluid that cushions and protects the brain and spinal cord.

Cranial nerves

Nerves that emerge directly from the brain.

Dorsal root ganglia

Clusters of sensory neuron cell bodies near the spinal cord.

Inferior colliculus

Midbrain structure involved in auditory processing.

Meninges

Protective membranes covering the brain and spinal cord.

Nucleus basalis

Structure involved in attention and arousal via acetylcholine release.

Pituitary gland

Endocrine gland that controls hormone release.

Substantia nigra

Midbrain structure involved in movement and dopamine production.

Superior colliculus

Midbrain structure involved in visual processing and eye movements.

Broca’s area

Region involved in speech production.