Key Terms and Figures from Western History (1300-1945)

A comprehensive set of flashcards covering key terms and figures from Western history, focusing on the Renaissance, Reformation, Enlightenment, World Wars, and the Cold War, providing definitions and significant contributions.

Renaissance

A 'rebirth' of classical learning and art in Europe (c. 1300–1600), marking the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity.

City-states

Independent cities and their surrounding territories (e.g., Florence, Venice) that served as the political and economic centers of the Renaissance.

Elizabethan Age

The period in English history (1558–1603) during Queen Elizabeth I's reign, noted for the flourishing of English drama and poetry.

Secularism

A shift in focus from religious and spiritual matters toward worldly and 'here and now' concerns.

Christian humanism

A movement in Northern Europe that combined classical learning with a goal to reform the Catholic Church.

Humanism

An intellectual movement focusing on human potential, achievements, and the study of classical Greek and Roman texts.

Individualism

Emphasis on the unique importance and worth of each person.

Mannerism

An artistic style of the late Renaissance characterized by elongated forms and emotional intensity, reacting against High Renaissance symmetry.

Manorialism

The economic system of the Middle Ages based on self-sufficient estates (manors) worked by serfs.

Open-field system

A traditional system of farming where land was divided into unfenced strips worked by different families.

Credit

An economic arrangement allowing for the purchase of goods/services with the promise of future payment; vital for Renaissance trade.

Interest

A charge for borrowed money, usually a percentage of the amount; its acceptance grew as commerce expanded.

Usury

The practice of lending money at high interest rates; traditionally condemned by the Church but increasingly common in the Renaissance.

Mercantilism

An economic theory that a nation's power depends on its wealth (gold/silver) and maintaining a favorable balance of trade.

Deism

A belief in a 'clockmaker' God who created the universe but does not intervene in its daily workings.

Scientific Revolution

A period of drastic change in scientific thought (16th–17th centuries) emphasizing observation and mathematics.

Crop rotation

The practice of growing different crops in succession on the same land to preserve soil fertility.

Treaty of Tordesillas

A 1494 agreement between Spain and Portugal to divide newly discovered lands outside Europe.

Triangle trade

A multilateral system of trading in which a country pays for its imports from one country by its exports to another (notably Africa, Americas, Europe).

Columbian Exchange

The global transfer of plants, animals, diseases, and technologies between the Old and New Worlds.

Potosí & Zacatecas

Major silver mining centers in South America (Potosí) and Mexico (Zacatecas) that fueled the Spanish economy.

Encomienda

A Spanish labor system that rewarded conquerors with the labor of particular groups of conquered non-Christian people.

Fall of Constantinople

The 1453 conquest by the Ottoman Empire that closed land trade routes to the East and pushed Europeans to explore the seas.

Viceroyalty system

Administrative districts in the Spanish Empire ruled by a viceroy who acted as the monarch's representative.

Middle passage

The brutal sea journey undertaken by slave ships from West Africa to the West Indies.

Medici family

Powerful bankers and patrons of the arts who effectively ruled Florence during the Renaissance.

Leonardo da Vinci

The quintessential 'Renaissance Man'; painter (Mona Lisa), inventor, and scientist.

Michelangelo Buonarroti

High Renaissance artist famous for the David statue and the Sistine Chapel ceiling.

Petrarch

Known as the 'Father of Humanism'; a poet who revived interest in classical Latin texts.

Boccaccio

Author of the Decameron, which provided a secular look at human behavior during the plague.

Niccolo Machiavelli

Author of The Prince, a guide for rulers on how to gain and maintain power (the ends justify the means).

Desiderius Erasmus

Leading Northern Christian humanist; wrote The Praise of Folly to critique Church corruption.

Leon Battista Alberti

Architect and philosopher who epitomized the 'universal man' through his work on perspective and design.

Lorenzo Valla

Humanist who used philology to prove the 'Donation of Constantine' was a forgery.

Thomas More

English humanist and author of Utopia; executed for opposing Henry VIII's break with Rome.

Johann Gutenberg

Inventor of the movable-type printing press, which revolutionized the spread of ideas.

Albrecht Dürer

German artist known for his detailed woodcuts and for bringing Renaissance styles to Northern Europe.

Baldassare Castiglione

Author of The Courtier, which defined the ideal behavior of a Renaissance gentleman.

Donatello

Early Renaissance sculptor who revived the classical style of free-standing statues (e.g., bronze David).

Filippo Brunelleschi

Architect who designed the massive dome of the Florence Cathedral and pioneered linear perspective.

Raphael

High Renaissance painter known for the clarity and harmony of his works, such as The School of Athens.

Fuggers

A powerful German banking family that replaced the Medici as the leading financiers in Europe.

Marsiglio Ficino

Humanist philosopher who translated Plato's works and headed the Platonic Academy in Florence.

Pico Della Mirandola

Author of Oration on the Dignity of Man, a key text of Renaissance humanism.

Sir Francis Bacon

Father of empiricism; developed the scientific method through inductive reasoning.

René Descartes

Philosopher and mathematician who used deductive reasoning; famous for 'I think, therefore I am.'

Nicolaus Copernicus

Astronomer who proposed the heliocentric theory (sun-centered universe).

Galileo Galilei

Improved the telescope and provided observational evidence for the heliocentric theory.

Johannes Kepler

Mathematically proved that planets move in elliptical orbits.

Christopher Columbus

Explorer whose 1492 voyage to the Americas initiated permanent European contact with the 'New World.'

Henry the Navigator

Portuguese prince who sponsored voyages of exploration down the coast of Africa.

Vasco da Gama

The first European to reach India by sea, opening a direct trade route for Portugal.

Hernan Cortez

Spanish conquistador who led the conquest of the Aztec Empire.

Francisco Pizarro

Spanish conquistador who led the conquest of the Inca Empire.

John Cabot

Italian explorer who claimed parts of North America for England.

Bartholomew Dias

The first European to sail around the southern tip of Africa (Cape of Good Hope).

Ferdinand Magellan

Leader of the first expedition to circumnavigate the globe (though he died en route).

Sir Francis Drake

English privateer and explorer who was the second person to circumnavigate the world.

Reformation

The 16th-century religious movement that led to the split of Western Christianity into Catholic and Protestant branches.

Peace of Augsburg

A treaty that ended religious wars in Germany, allowing princes to choose between Catholicism and Lutheranism for their lands.

Indulgences

Certificates sold by the Church that were believed to reduce time in purgatory; their sale triggered Luther's protest.

The Diet of Worms

The assembly that called Martin Luther to recant his teachings; he refused and was declared an outlaw.

Spanish Inquisition

A state-run religious court intended to maintain Catholic orthodoxy in Spain and its colonies.

Huguenots

French Protestants (Calvinists) who faced severe persecution from the Catholic majority.

Council of Trent

A series of meetings where the Catholic Church reaffirmed its doctrines and addressed corruption to counter the Reformation.

Jesuits

The Society of Jesus; a religious order founded to spread Catholicism and stop the spread of Protestantism through education.

Index of Prohibited Books

A list of publications deemed heretical or contrary to morality by the Catholic Church.

The Thirty Years’ War

A massive European conflict (1618–1648) that began as a religious war in the HRE and ended as a political struggle for power.

War of Three Henrys

A conflict during the French Wars of Religion between Henry III, Henry of Guise, and Henry of Navarre.

Edict of Nantes

A 1598 decree by Henry IV of France granting religious tolerance to Huguenots.

Martin Luther

German monk whose 95 Theses started the Reformation; taught salvation by faith alone.

John Calvin

Founded Calvinism, emphasizing the absolute sovereignty of God and the doctrine of predestination.

Ignatius of Loyola

Founder of the Jesuits; a former soldier who dedicated his life to defending the Catholic Church.

Cardinal Richelieu

French minister who prioritized the interests of the state (raison d'état) over religion during the Thirty Years' War.

Charles V of Spain and Austria

Holy Roman Emperor who struggled to keep his empire Catholic against the tide of the Reformation.

Philip II of Spain

Catholic monarch who sought to champion the Counter-Reformation and launched the Spanish Armada against England.

Concordat of Bologna

1516 agreement giving the French king the right to appoint bishops, increasing royal power over the church.

Divine right theory of rule

The belief that a monarch’s authority comes directly from God and they are not accountable to their subjects.

Commercial revolution/price revolution

A period of economic expansion and inflation in Europe fueled by New World gold and population growth.

The Glorious Revolution

The 1688 bloodless overthrow of King James II of England, replaced by William and Mary; established parliamentary supremacy.

Roundheads

Supporters of Parliament during the English Civil War.

Cavaliers

Supporters of King Charles I during the English Civil War.

Baroque art

A grand, ornate style of art and architecture often used by absolute monarchs and the Catholic Church to show power.

Peter the Great

Russian Tsar who modernized and 'Westernized' Russia, building the new capital of St. Petersburg.

Frederick William I of Prussia

'The Soldier King' who transformed Prussia into a highly militarized and efficient state.

Francis I

French king who centralized power and promoted the Renaissance in France (signed Concordat of Bologna).

Catherine de' Medici

Powerful French Queen mother who exerted great influence during the Wars of Religion.

Henry II

French king whose accidental death led to the political instability of the French Wars of Religion.

Henry IV

First Bourbon king of France; issued Edict of Nantes and famously said 'Paris is worth a mass.'

Louis XIV

The 'Sun King'; the ultimate absolute monarch who built Versailles and revoked the Edict of Nantes.

Jean-Baptiste Colbert

Louis XIV's finance minister who used mercantilism to strengthen the French economy.

Henry VIII

English king who broke from the Pope to form the Church of England, centralizing royal authority.

Elizabeth I

Consolidated the Anglican Church and oversaw a 'Golden Age' of English power.

John Locke

Philosopher who argued for natural rights (life, liberty, property) and the right to rebel against tyranny.

James I

First Stuart king of England; advocate for divine right, which clashed with Parliament.

Charles I

His conflicts with Parliament over taxes and religion led to the English Civil War and his execution.

Oliver Cromwell

Puritan leader of the Roundheads; ruled England as 'Lord Protector' after the king's execution.

Charles II

The monarch who returned to the throne during the Restoration after Cromwell's rule.

Estate system (Ancien Régime)

The social structure of pre-revolutionary France divided into the Clergy (1st), Nobility (2nd), and Commoners (3rd).

National Assembly

The body formed by the Third Estate in 1789 to begin the revolution and write a constitution.