the fall of the USSR

In what ways did the legitimacy of the Soviet government depend on economic success?

it justified its rule by demonstratings its ability to meet the material needs of the people which became more important afte the reduction of Terror after starlin

What causes of the USSR's economic decline were identified by the 1983 Novosibirsk Report?

ot drew attention to the frowing crisis in agriculture caused by state inefficiency and inflexiblity.

Why was the Novosibirsk report not acted on until Gorbachev came to power?

ageing mambers of the politburo did not understand the conclusions it came to or just chose to ignore it.

What measures did Gorbachev take to reduce the consumption of alcohol in the USSR and why were they needed?

the legal drinking age was raised to 21 and the nuber of retail outlets where alcohol could be bought were reduced and vinyard were destroyed and the cost of vodka tripled in price

it was needed because by the mid 1980s, spending on acohol accounted for 15% household spending.

How effective were the measures taken to reduce consuption of alcohol

tax revenues the government got from alcohol fell and cuased a shortfall in budget

drinking levels started to rise again after then creation of illegal moonshine liqur was produced in large quantities

aims of the twelfth 5 year plan

Gorbachev aimed to increase rates of economic growth in the USSR. Initially he relied on traditional methods to try to achieve this. The Twelfth Five Year Plan aimed to boost the ailing economy by the old method of boosting state investment, controlled by central planning, in order to accelerate growth. The focus of investment would be in science, research and engineering.

Make a list of reasons why the Twelfth Five Year Plan did not solve the USSR's underlying economic problems

invenstment often scewed toward construction projects which often resulted in overspending

soviet industry was notorious for using out of date and prone to breaking equipment which was unproductive

soviet industry was slow to use new tech and imports of foreign tech were a drain on valuable foreign exchange which was often used to import food

agriculture was swallowing vast sums of investment that were not leading to icreased productivity. the gov reached a point where they realised that there was little to be gained from more investment to agriculture

focus remained on quantity rather than quality

Which bodies in the USSR opposed real change and why?

the party and state economic planning apparatus ie gosplan

What were the superministries and why did Gorbachev introduce them?

they wereset up to achieve better coodination of economic activity and reduce waste and rivalry for rescources

but these failed to reduce waste and duplications as they were to be implemented by the people whose privileged positions the reforms were trying to reduce

Why did the military threaten the government’s ability to maintain a supply of consumer goods for the public?

they wanted investment in military technology but these sectors would only improve if others sufferef eg consumer goods

Why was going into deficit not a realistic solution for solving the economic problems of the USSR?

it would only be temporary and would fail to sort out any underlying problems that gorbachev failed to sort out

the economic deficit rose from 2.4% of GDP in 1985 to 6.2% in 1986

a deficit iswhen the state spends more than they have in hopes that the economy will improve later

ow did the international situation add to the economic problems of the USSR? Eg the Cold War

the ongoing war in afganistan meant an icrease in defence spending in light of the USA plan to launch SDI

overview of perestroika

By 1987 Gorbachev realised that more fundamental reform was needed. The whole Soviet economy would need to be restructured and some degree of market forces harnessed.

At the January 1987 Plenum of the Central Committee he launched his proposals for perestroika (economic restructuring). This involved introducing market mechanisms into the state-controlled economy, allowing an element of private enterprise which would act as an incentive to encourage greater production and flexibility. Gorbachev was not trying to destroy the communist system, but to reform it by creating a mixed economy.

What were the key reforms of the policy of perestroika?

the encouragement of joint ventures in jan 1987 where the gov allowed foreign firms to establish buisinesses in the soviet union, unsually joint with the state eg moscow had its first mcdonalds in 1990

the law on state enterprises in june 1987 which was a loosening of state controls over wages and prices and as a consequence, weakened the authority of gosplan. it allowed an element of choice of managers and factories could produce what they wanted after they had compleated targets

co-operatives legalised in 1988 which allowed small buisinesses to be established which lead to an increase in cafes, restaurants and small shops.

in jan 1987 Gorbachev wanted to introduce market mechanisms which were usuing practices of a capiltalist economy and supply and demand

Make a list of the impacts of the policy perestroika on the Soviet economy.

food production had small growth but still had to rely on imports for 1/5

buisinesses were still subject to interfearence as they had materials allocated to them but the freedom of managers depended on the attitudes of state bureaucrats who wanted to keep tight control

products eg food were diverted from state shops to co-operatives becuase it was more profitable which led to inflation which affected pensions and those on fixed income

co-operatives could shop around for the best buyer resulting in deals with wealthier city authorities leaving poorer areas with little food

co-operatives proved more productive so corrupt officials demanded bribes for permission to continue to operate and criminal gangs saw an oportunity to make profits though extortion rackets

uncertanty over supplies led to hoarding of food so food rationing was introduced

foreign companies wanting to invest in the USSR were put off by the endless beuocrary which made progress slow

reforms undermined and sabotaged by eg in leningrad all sausages were take and then buried

How significant were the failures of Gorbachev’s political reforms in bringing about the fall of the USSR in 1991?

Gorbachev realised that the main obstacle to further reform of the economy was the Communist Party itself. The dual structure of Party and state (Soviets) had created an apparatus which was huge and unmanageable. Under Brezhnev the Party had been allowed to grow in power creating competing blocs of vested interests, which was wasteful as their roles could overlap. Competition between different branches of the administration led to corruption and nepotism.There was also tension between the central planning apparatus in Moscow and that at regional level in the republics. 

The Chernobyl nuclear accident in 1985 (p122), which resulted in a wave of radioactive fallout across much of northern Europe, confirmed to Gorbachev just how corrupt and inefficient the system had become. The plant was badly managed, used outdated equipment, had a poor health and safety record, and used secrecy and evasion to cover up its deficiencies. Evacuation from the area was delayed leading to increasing cases of leukaemia and birth defects.

summerise glasnost

Gorbachev set out to streamline the whole political system and get rid of officials opposed to reform. The policy of Glasnost (openness) was a key part of this. By opening up the Party to scrutiny and criticism, Gorbachev hoped to revitalise it by encouraging discussion and new ideas and also to win public support for his economic reforms. Unfortunately it soon descended into an all out attack on the Party and its corrupt practices, both past and present. For example:  

• Historical investigations revealed Stalin’s role in the famine and terror of the 1930s and the Katyn Massacre where over 4,000 Polish army officers in april and may 1940 were killed and buried in mass grave. it was initially blamed on the german army but was a lie

• Complaints about poor housing were frequent 

• The myth of the Great Patriotic War was undermined by revelations of the reckless waste of lives 

• Environmental scandals such as the Aral Sea whereby the sea had almost disappeared due to the diversion of the water to irrigate cotton crops, rendering the remaining water in the sea undrinkable and making the local climate hotter and drier

How did Gorbachev try to reform the communist party?

shifted power from the party to the soviets which was attempted by allocating more finance to the soviets in order to give them the rescrources to support their role. deputies of the soviets were to be elected for 5 years rather than 2 giving them more security in their post

streamlining the party - the deprtments of he central comitee of the communist party were reduced from 20 to 9 and 6 new commissions were created. it was accomplihed by similar measures to streamline the state. in november 1985 g had created superministries to coordinate economic planning and another for ac=grciuture

a clapdown on corruption -brezhnev’s son in law sentenced to 12 years in prison and attacks on corrupt officials were popular with the publlic but cuased alot of resentment in the party

How did gorbachev attempt to democratise the election process? - How significant were these reforms?

june 1987 there was a limited experiments with multiple candidates in elections for local soviets

at the 19th party conference - june 1988, Gorbachev announced that the principle of multi candidate elections owuld be extended to a national level with elections for the new congress of people’s deputies.

memers of the congress were to be allocated to the party and other organisations eg trade unions and union of writers

the communist party was still the only legal party

and in reality these reforms were just tinkering with the system but once the population got a taste of democracy, they wanted more

what did reformers and starlinists think now that G was reforming the party

Many reformers were now convinced that the only solution was to open up the Party to competition by allowing other political parties (pluralism), whereas die-hard Stalinists such as Andrei Gromyko were determined to preserve hard-line communism . At the same time, both liberals such as Yeltsin and conservatives felt alienated, undermining Gorbachev’s authority.

 What are the problems in applying the labels liberal and conservative in regard to Soviet politics post 1985?

individual considred each reform on its own merits eg many saw a need for change but disagreed with the pace of change e.g ligachev initially a force for change but when he left the poliburo in 1990 he was seen as more conservative

what divisiaions between gorbachev and yeltsin increased due to reforms of the communist party

There were deep divisions between Gorbachev and Yeltsin. Yeltsin was convinced that the Party would not carry through the necessary reforms and, at a Plenum of the Central Committee in October 1987, he openly attacked Gorbachev’s approach as too slow.He was then sacked as Party First Secretary in Moscow and removed from the Politburo in February 1988

what happened in march 1988 with hard line communist due to reforms of the party

In March 1988 hardline communists attempted to regain control. A letter by an unknown communist, Nina Andreeva, was published in the newspaper Sovetskaya Russia. The letter complained about the constant undermining of the work of Stalin and attacked Glasnost for demoralising the party. Gorbachev was out of the country at the time and Ligachev, who was acting as his deputy, used the letter as an opportunity to attack the pace of reform. Ligachev had initially supported change when he joined the Politburo in 1985 but had become increasingly concerned that change was happening too quickly, sentiments which - worryingly for Gorbachev -  were supported by some of his own appointees, eg Victor Chebrikov.

how did party reforms cause factions

Factions developed as liberals and conservatives within the Party began to appeal to the wider public for support, eg during the elections for the Congress of People’s Deputies in 1989, reformers such as Yeltsin formed an Inter-regional Group and conservatives, worried about the territorial integrity of the USSR formed Soyuz. When the Congress met these groups formed an unofficial opposition to the government. 

how was the removal of article 6 an issue due to party feforms

In March 1990, under pressure from reformers Andrei Sakharov, Gorbachev repealed Article 6 (see p 124) thus ending the Party’s monopoly on power. 

In elections to local Soviets in 1990 Communist Party candidates were defeated across the country In Leningrad the opposition secured 60% of the seats and in the non-Russian republics, support for nationalist groups grew 

In the elections for the Russian Congress of People’s Deputies, Yeltsin scored a victory for his newly formed political grouping, Democratic Platform, and in June 1990 he resigned from the Party.

The ending of Article 6 and the rise of opposition groups created a political vacuum which was temporarily filled by the election of Gorbachev to the position of President of the USSR by the Congress of People’s Deputies. Party rule had ended and power had, at least in theory, shifted form the centre to the regions 

summerise the impact of Gorbachev’s political reforms

• These created a wave of public optimism, as hopes were raised which would almost inevitably be dashed. Gorbachev’s renewed popularity would prove short-lived and any further promises of change treated with extreme caution.

• It led to a rise in a new generation of politicians outside the party, especially anti-party nationalists such as Boris Yeltsin. Gorbachev did not take the opportunity to turn this new cohort into allies and so they turned against him.

• The introduction of limited democracy galvanised resistance to Gorbachev and his central power base from every quarter. By creating a political system that was still dominated by the Party, democratisation forced newcomers to move to open opposition if they were to have any political life or successes. In response to the growing support for opposition candidates, the conservatives increasingly saw their only chance of survival in opposing G and reform.

• Finally, the new structures created by G failed to take into account the growing need for a decentralisation of power. As a result it only strengthened local nationalism and a resistance to the centre.

what was the Brezhnev Doctrine?

was introduces in 1968 to prevent the czech communist gov from introducing liberal reform. it exerted control over satlalite states

When did Gorbachev announce that the doctrine would be abandoned and why?

it was reversed in 1985 saying goverbacev would not get involved in the interal affaires of salalite states. this hapened bc 40 bllion dollars a year were spent on propping up communist governments around the world and g wanted to focus on improving russia and belived that armed intervention was morally wrong

What was the impact of the ending of the Brezhnev Doctrine on Eastern Europe?

• Gorbachev’s economic and political reforms - Perestroika and Glasnost - led some to demands for similar changes, both from the public in Eastern European countries, and from reformers in the governments 

• Nationalist sentiment was driving these demands. Communist control had been imposed on Eastern Europe by force after WWII and Soviet control was increasingly presented and unpopular   

• The ending of the Brezhnev Doctrine presented huge problems for the leaders of Eastern European communist governments. Without Soviet military intervention they would be unable to quosh mass demonstrations. As a result, communist regimes quickly collapsed in 1989 as national groups asserted their independence from the USSR.

the collpase of the communist regime in poland

communist leader: General Jaruzelski

source of pressure for reform: solidarity

outcome: communism collapsed and solidarity led poland

the collpase of the communist regime in hungary

communist leader: Janas Kadan

source of pressure for reform: within the communist party

outcome: other political parties could exist

the collpase of the communist regime in east germany

communist leader: edrich honecker

source of pressure for reform: G’s visit encouraged people to push for reform

outcome: Berlin wall collapsed

the collpase of the communist regime in czechoslovkia

communist leader: Gustav Kusak

source of pressure for reform: civic forum

outcome: Berlin wall collapsed: reforms introduced and Vaclav Havel

he collpase of the communist regime in romania

communist leader: Nicolae Ceausescu

source of pressure for reform: food shortages and lack of consumer goods and leader open fired on demonstrations

outcome: leader forced to flee and was executed and arrested

How was the source of pressure for change different in Hungary and Bulgaria to the other Eastern European countries

reformers came from inside the party

Why did nationalist movements pose a particular threat to the communist regime in East Germany?

east germany relied more on soviet support than other states and was a result of super power tension and it was an artificial coutnry

The growth of nationalist sentiment within the USSR

• Environmental damage caused by the government's economic policies which had affected the outlying parts of the USSR particularly badly, for example parts of central Asia had suffered soil erosion due to the diversion of rivers for irrigation schemes. Environmental issues acted as rallying point for local people against central government in Moscow

• Local party leaders who had been left alone to build up power bases under Brezhnev, now felt threatened by Gorbachev’s reforms. They often lent their support to local concerns in an attempt to preserve their privileged positions, and to avoid being seen as lackeys of Moscow.

• The USSR was a divided along ethnic and cultural lines. In the 1980s almost half the population (141 million) were non- Russian, including Slavic peoples such Lithuanians, Estonians, Latvians and Ukranians, and non-Slavic peoples, most of whom were Muslim groups in Central Asia and the Caucasus region. These different nationalities often had a strong sense of their own identity through their native language and cultural heritage

Nagorno Karabakh

• An autonomous region within the Azerbaijan Republic, populated largely by Armenians. In 1988, ethnic tensions erupted into violence when the Armenians in the area agitated to join the Armenian Republic.

• An unofficial referendum held illegally without the consent of the Soviet government returned a large majority for joining Armenia and, in November, the Armenian government announced that Nagorno Karabakh was now under its control. 

• Gorbachev felt compelled to intervene and impose direct control from Moscow, but this outside interference merely inflamed the situation 

• Further ethnic clashes occurred in Georgia in 1989, where huge demonstrations in favour of independence were held in 1989, and in Kyrgyzstan in 1990. There were also ethnic tension in Moldavia between the majority Moldavian population and those of Turkish descent who feared discrimination

The Baltic republics

• Nationalism in the Baltic republics posed a serious threat to the survival of the USSR. Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania had only been incorporated into the USSR in 1939 as part of the Nazi-Soviet Pact, and therefore some people remembered being independent form the USSR. The Baltic republics also had higher levels of education which promoted an understanding of their separate language, culture and history. They were also more economically developed than other regions of the USSR, so could survive as independent nations 

• Between April and October 1988 Popular Fronts were established in all 3 republics. At first led by the intelligentsia who formed Sajudis (movements), they quickly developed into mass organisations, calling initially for protection for their native languages and cultural traditions, and then for independence from the USSR

• In August 1989 the anniversary of the Nazi-Soviet Pact was used to stage a mass demonstration for independence, involving a human chain - ‘holding hands for peace’ - across the 3 republics (see p129) 

• In 1990 Popular Fronts won a majority in elections to the Supreme Soviet in all 3 Baltic Republics. In March the speaker of the Lithuanian Supreme Soviet, Vytautas Landsbergis, declared that Lithuania was now an independent state; the other 2 republics quickly followed.

• The Soviet government refused to acknowledge the declaration as it was illegal and, in January 1991 pro-Soviet communists supported by some Red Army troops attempted to take over the TV station in the Lithuanian capital Vilnius, resulting in at least 13 deaths.

• The attempted occupation of the TV station was probably carried out by rogue elements in the armed forces and KGG who wanted to pressurise Gorbachev into taking a firmer line against nationalism. In reality, he was not opposed to these independence movements and made it clear that he would not try to prevent them as long as the proper channels were followed.