Clinical Psychology Final Exam, Key Concepts

Classification and Diagnosis (DSM-5)

Classification and diagnosis involve identifying and labeling a psychological disorder using established criteria. The DSM-5 is the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, a widely used manual that guides mental health professionals in diagnosing and categorizing disorders.

Diagnostic Criteria and Categories

Diagnostic criteria refers to the specific symptoms and behaviors that must be present for a mental health condition to be diagnosed. Diagnostic categories are organized groupings of these conditions, as outlined in manuals like the DSM-5.

Clinical Interview

A clinical interview is a structured conversation between a mental health professional and a patient to gather information about the patient's symptoms, history, and functioning related to feeding and eating disorders.

DSM-5 Criteria

DSM-5 criteria are the official guidelines published in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, used by clinicians to diagnose specific feeding and eating disorders based on defined symptoms and behaviors.

Mood Disorders

Mood disorders are mental health conditions characterized by extreme changes or disturbances in mood, such as depression or mania. Common examples include major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder.

Assessment and Diagnosis of Mood Disorders

Assessment and diagnosis of mood disorders involve evaluating a person’s symptoms, medical history, and functioning to determine if they meet the criteria for a mood disorder, often using clinical interviews, self-report questionnaires, and diagnostic manuals such as the DSM-5.

Treatment Approaches for Mood Disorders

Treatment for mood disorders often combines psychological therapies with medication. Common approaches include cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), interpersonal therapy, antidepressant drugs, mood stabilizers, lifestyle changes, and in some cases, more intensive treatments such as electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). Treatments are tailored to the needs of the individual.

CBT

CBT, or cognitive-behavioral therapy, is a form of talk therapy that teaches people to identify and change negative thought patterns and behaviors that contribute to mood disorders.

Types of Mood Disorders

Mood disorders are a group of mental health conditions that cause significant disturbances in a person’s emotional state, often involving periods of depression or elevated mood. Major types include depressive disorders, such as major depressive disorder and persistent depressive disorder (dysthymia), and bipolar disorders, which involve episodes of mania and depression.

Bipolar I Disorder

Bipolar I Disorder is a mood disorder marked by at least one episode of mania, which may be preceded or followed by episodes of major depression.

Hypomanic Episodes

Hypomanic episodes are periods of elevated or irritable mood and increased energy or activity that are noticeable to others but less severe than full mania. These episodes last at least four days and do not cause significant impairment in daily functioning or require hospitalization.

Major Depressive Episodes

Major depressive episodes are periods marked by feelings of deep sadness or loss of interest alongside other symptoms, such as low energy or difficulty concentrating, lasting at least two weeks and impacting daily functioning.

Major Depressive Disorder

Major Depressive Disorder is a mood disorder characterized by persistent feelings of sadness or a lack of interest in most activities, lasting at least two weeks and causing significant distress or impairment in daily life.

Changes in Appetite or Sleep

Noticeable increases or decreases in how much a person eats or sleeps, such as eating much more or less than usual, or experiencing insomnia or oversleeping.

Loss of Interest

Loss of interest describes a noticeable decrease in pleasure or interest in nearly all activities that were previously enjoyed, which is a key symptom of major depressive disorder.

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by persistent patterns of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity that interfere with daily functioning or development.

Inattention

Inattention refers to difficulty maintaining focus on tasks or activities, being easily distracted, and struggling to organize or complete work. It is a core symptom of ADHD.

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental condition marked by challenges in social communication and the presence of restricted or repetitive behaviors and interests. The severity and symptoms can vary widely among individuals.

Social Communication Deficits

Social communication deficits refer to difficulties in using language and nonverbal communication in social contexts. This can include trouble understanding and responding to social cues, maintaining conversation, and forming peer relationships. These difficulties are a core feature of autism spectrum disorder.

Intellectual Disability (ID)

Intellectual Disability (ID) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that includes limitations in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior, affecting daily social and practical skills, with onset during the developmental period.

Developmental Onset

Developmental onset means that the symptoms or impairments of a disorder begin during the developmental period, usually before the age of 18.

Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders

Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders involve persistent unwanted thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors or mental acts (compulsions) performed to reduce distress. This group includes obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), body dysmorphic disorder, and hoarding disorder.

Assessment and Diagnosis of OCD-Related Disorders

Assessment and diagnosis of OCD-related disorders involve interviews, symptom checklists, and psychological tests. Clinicians look for patterns of obsessions, compulsions, and related behaviors, using criteria from manuals like the DSM-5 to make a clinical diagnosis.

Diagnostic Criteria

Diagnostic criteria are a set of specific signs, symptoms, and guidelines used by clinicians to determine if a person meets the requirements for a particular mental disorder, such as OCD, according to established manuals like the DSM-5.

Differential Diagnosis

Differential diagnosis is the process through which clinicians distinguish OCD and related disorders from other psychological conditions that might have similar symptoms, ensuring an accurate diagnosis.

Treatment Approaches for OCD-Related Disorders

Treatment approaches for OCD-related disorders often include cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), particularly exposure and response prevention (ERP), and medications such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). In severe cases, other interventions like deep brain stimulation may be considered.

ERP (Exposure and Response Prevention)

ERP is a specific type of cognitive-behavioral therapy that exposes individuals to feared situations or thoughts while helping them prevent their typical compulsive responses. This technique reduces anxiety over time by breaking the link between obsessions and compulsions.

SSRIs

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are a class of medication often prescribed for OCD. They increase serotonin levels in the brain and help reduce obsessions and compulsions.

Types of OCD-Related Disorders

Types of OCD-related disorders include obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), body dysmorphic disorder, hoarding disorder, trichotillomania (hair-pulling disorder), and excoriation (skin-picking) disorder. These disorders share features such as repetitive thoughts or behaviors.

Hoarding Disorder

Hoarding Disorder involves persistent difficulty discarding or parting with items, regardless of their real value, resulting in cluttered living spaces that can interfere with their intended use.

Difficulty Discarding

Difficulty discarding refers to a persistent struggle to get rid of possessions, regardless of their actual value, which is a key feature of hoarding disorder.

Compulsions

Compulsions are repetitive behaviors or mental acts that a person feels driven to perform in response to obsessions, usually to reduce anxiety or prevent a feared event.

Obsessions

Obsessions are recurring, unwanted thoughts, images, or urges that cause anxiety or discomfort. In OCD, these obsessions are experienced as intrusive and difficult to control.

Assessment and Diagnosis of Personality Disorders

Assessment and diagnosis involve evaluating a person's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors to determine if they meet criteria for a personality disorder. Clinicians use interviews, questionnaires, and observation, following guidelines such as those in the DSM-5, to make an accurate diagnosis.

DSM-5 Criteria

DSM-5 criteria are official guidelines developed by the American Psychiatric Association to diagnose mental disorders, including personality disorders. They describe specific symptoms and requirements that must be met for diagnosis.

Long-term Pattern

A long-term pattern refers to enduring and persistent behaviors, thoughts, and feelings that are consistent over time and across different situations. In personality disorders, these patterns usually emerge in adolescence or early adulthood.

Cluster A (Odd or Eccentric)

Cluster A is a group of personality disorders characterized by odd or eccentric behaviors. This cluster includes paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders. People with these disorders often appear unusual or peculiar and may have difficulty relating to others.

Magical Thinking

Magical thinking is the belief that one's own thoughts, words, or actions can cause or prevent events in a way that defies normal laws of cause and effect. This is common in schizotypal personality disorder, where individuals may believe they have special powers or can influence others with their thoughts.

Borderline Personality Disorder

Borderline Personality Disorder is a psychiatric disorder characterized by instability in mood, self-image, and relationships. Individuals may experience intense emotions, fear of abandonment, impulsive behaviors, and difficulty maintaining relationships.

Emotional Instability

Emotional instability means experiencing intense and rapidly shifting emotions. People with borderline personality disorder may have mood swings and find it hard to control their feelings.

Fear of Abandonment

A strong and persistent worry or anxiety that others will leave or reject the person, frequently affecting those with Borderline Personality Disorder.

Excessive Emotionality

Excessive emotionality is the display of strong and quickly changing emotions that are exaggerated or inappropriate for the situation. People with histrionic personality disorder often respond to events with more emotion than would typically be expected.

Narcissistic Personality Disorder

Narcissistic Personality Disorder is a disorder involving a long-term pattern of exaggerated self-importance, need for admiration, and lack of empathy for others. People with this disorder often desire to be seen as superior and tend to exploit others for their own gain.

Grandiosity

Grandiosity refers to an inflated sense of self-importance, where a person strongly believes they are better or more important than other people. In narcissistic personality disorder, grandiosity often involves exaggerating talents, knowledge, or achievements.

Need for Admiration

The need for admiration is a strong desire to be praised, recognized, or looked up to by others. People with narcissistic personality disorder often constantly seek approval, validation, and admiration to maintain their self-esteem.

Avoidant Personality Disorder

Avoidant Personality Disorder is a mental health condition marked by severe social inhibition, feelings of inadequacy, and sensitivity to negative evaluation. Individuals with this disorder often avoid social interactions due to fear of rejection or criticism.

Feelings of Inadequacy

Feelings of inadequacy refer to persistent beliefs that one is not good enough or is inferior to others. People with avoidant personality disorder often feel unworthy and doubt their abilities in social and occupational settings.

Social Inhibition

Social inhibition refers to a tendency to avoid social interactions and situations due to fear of embarrassment, rejection, or negative evaluation by others.

Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder

Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder is a personality disorder involving a chronic preoccupation with orderliness, perfectionism, and control. Those with this condition may be rigid, detail-oriented, and struggle to adapt to change or delegate tasks.

Rigidity

An inflexible way of thinking or behaving, showing little willingness to consider new ideas or change routines. Within obsessive-compulsive personality disorder, rigidity affects attitudes, morality, behavior, and ways of managing tasks.

Etiology and Risk Factors of Personality Disorders

Etiology refers to the causes or origins of personality disorders, which often involve a combination of genetic, biological, psychological, and environmental factors. Risk factors can include a family history of mental illness, early childhood trauma, and certain personality traits.

Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders

Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders refer to a group of severe mental disorders that affect thinking, perception, emotional responsiveness, and behavior. These may include schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, and delusional disorder.

Assessment and Diagnosis of Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders

Assessment involves gathering information using clinical interviews, psychological tests, and observations to identify symptoms of these disorders. Diagnosis is based on criteria outlined in the DSM-5, which looks for the presence, severity, and duration of core symptoms such as delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and social or functional deficits.

Clinical Interview

A clinical interview is a conversation between a mental health professional and a patient that gathers detailed information about the patient's history, symptoms, and functioning in order to assist with diagnosis and treatment planning.

Symptom Duration

Symptom duration refers to the length of time specific symptoms have been present. In diagnosing schizophrenia, the main symptoms must typically persist for at least six months.

Types of Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders

The schizophrenia spectrum encompasses several related disorders, not just schizophrenia. The main types include schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, schizophreniform disorder, brief psychotic disorder, delusional disorder, and schizotypal personality disorder. Each type involves distinct patterns of symptoms and duration but shares features like psychosis or unusual thinking.

Brief Psychotic Disorder

Brief Psychotic Disorder is a condition where a person suddenly develops psychotic symptoms, such as delusions or hallucinations, that last for at least one day but less than one month, followed by a full return to normal functioning.

Delusions or Hallucinations

Delusions are false beliefs that are not based in reality, while hallucinations are sensory experiences, like hearing or seeing things that are not there. Both can be symptoms of Brief Psychotic Disorder.

Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is a chronic mental disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, abnormal motor behavior, and diminished emotional expression. These symptoms are present for at least six months and significantly impair daily functioning.

Delusions

Delusions are fixed, false beliefs that are not based in reality and are resistant to logical argument or contrary evidence.

Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders

Somatic symptom and related disorders are characterized by physical symptoms that cannot be fully explained by a medical condition and are associated with significant distress or functional impairment. These may include somatic symptom disorder and illness anxiety disorder.

Types of Somatic Symptom Disorders

Somatic symptom disorders include several related conditions where people experience physical symptoms that cannot be fully explained by a medical condition. The main types are somatic symptom disorder, illness anxiety disorder, conversion disorder, and factitious disorder. Each type has unique features, but all involve significant distress or impairment due to physical symptoms.

Illness Anxiety Disorder

Illness Anxiety Disorder involves persistent worry about having, or getting, a serious illness even when few or no physical symptoms are present. People with this disorder have high health anxiety, often checking their bodies for signs of illness without clear medical reasons.

Preoccupation with Serious Illness

A persistent and excessive worry about having or developing a serious medical condition, even when there is little or no evidence to support this belief.

Somatic Symptom Disorder

Somatic Symptom Disorder is characterized by one or more physical symptoms that are distressing or seriously disrupt daily life. These symptoms cause significant anxiety and concern, even if a medical explanation cannot be fully found. The person's thoughts, feelings, or behaviors related to the symptoms are excessive and persistent.

Assessment and Diagnosis of Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders

Assessment and diagnosis refer to the processes professionals use to determine whether someone has these disorders. This involves clinical interviews, questionnaires, medical histories, and meeting specific diagnostic criteria based on classification systems, the DSM-5.

DSM-5 Criteria

The DSM-5 criteria are a set of standardized guidelines established by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, to assess and diagnose substance use and addictive disorders based on specific patterns of behavior and symptoms.

Gambling Disorder

Gambling Disorder is a mental health condition where a person has a persistent and recurrent pattern of problematic gambling behavior. This behavior leads to significant distress or problems in daily life, such as issues with work, relationships, or finances. It is considered a non-substance-related addictive disorder.

Chasing Losses

Chasing losses means continuing to gamble in an attempt to recover money that has already been lost, leading to even bigger risks and greater financial problems.

Treatment Approaches for Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders

Treatment approaches are strategies used to help individuals overcome substance-related and addictive disorders. These may include behavioral therapies, medication, support groups, and rehabilitation programs, often tailored to the individual's needs.

CBT

CBT, or Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, is a treatment method focused on identifying and changing negative thoughts and behaviors related to substance use, helping individuals cope with triggers and develop healthier patterns.

Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders

Trauma- and stressor-related disorders are mental illnesses that develop in response to a traumatic or stressful event. Examples include post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and acute stress disorder.

Types of Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders

These are mental health conditions that develop after exposure to a traumatic or stressful event. Common types include posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), acute stress disorder, adjustment disorders, and reactive attachment disorder. Each type has unique symptoms and diagnostic criteria.

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a mental health condition that can develop after someone experiences or witnesses a traumatic or life-threatening event. Symptoms include intrusive memories, avoidance of reminders, negative changes in mood or thinking, and increased arousal, lasting for more than one month and causing significant distress or impairment.

Intrusive Memories

Intrusive memories are unwanted, distressing thoughts or recollections of the traumatic event that repeatedly enter the person's mind and cause psychological discomfort.

Treatments and Therapeutic Approaches

Treatments and therapeutic approaches refer to the methods used to help people manage symptoms of mental disorders. These can include psychotherapy, medication, or other interventions to reduce distress and improve functioning.

Evidence-Based Practice

Evidence-based practice refers to using treatments and interventions in clinical work that have been shown through scientific research to be effective and appropriate for specific problems.

Outcome Research

Outcome research studies the results or changes produced by psychological treatments to assess how effective they are in improving client well-being or reducing symptoms.

Unconscious Conflict

An unconscious conflict is a struggle between opposing wishes or motives in the mind that a person is unaware of, often influencing behavior and emotions.

Case Conceptualization

Case conceptualization is the process of organizing and understanding a client's problems, strengths, and background to guide treatment planning and intervention.

Components of a Case Conceptualization

Core elements often include presenting problems, client history, risk factors, strengths, hypothesized mechanisms, and treatment goals.

Perpetuating Factors

Perpetuating factors are ongoing conditions or behaviors that maintain or worsen a psychological problem. They prevent the issue from resolving on its own.

Pre-disposing Factors

Predisposing factors are long-standing conditions or characteristics that make an individual more likely to develop psychological problems. These can include genetics, early life experiences, or personality traits.

Models of Case Conceptualization

Models of case conceptualization are structured approaches that guide clinicians in understanding and explaining client issues. Common models include cognitive-behavioral, psychodynamic, and biopsychosocial frameworks.

Biopsychosocial Model

The biopsychosocial model is a comprehensive framework that explains mental health issues as the result of interactions between biological, psychological, and social factors. It considers all three domains important for understanding and treating psychological problems.

Clinical Assessment and Diagnosis

Clinical assessment involves gathering information to understand a client's problems and mental health needs. Diagnosis refers to identifying psychological disorders by comparing client symptoms to standardized criteria like those in the DSM-5.

Diagnostic Classification Systems

Diagnostic classification systems are structured manuals, such as the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), used to organize and define mental disorders. These systems provide standard language and criteria for diagnosis.

Categorical vs Dimensional

Categorical and dimensional refer to two different approaches to classifying mental disorders. The categorical approach places individuals into distinct diagnostic categories, while the dimensional approach measures symptoms on a continuum or scale.

DSM-5

The DSM-5, or Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, is a manual used by mental health professionals to diagnose and classify mental disorders. It provides standardized criteria and descriptions for each disorder.

Diagnostic Criteria

Diagnostic criteria are specific guidelines or lists of symptoms that must be present for a mental disorder to be diagnosed. These criteria help clinicians to make reliable and valid diagnoses based on standardized features.

Ethical Issues in Clinical Assessment

Ethical issues in clinical assessment involve respecting clients' privacy, obtaining informed consent, using fair and unbiased tools, and ensuring results are interpreted responsibly and confidentially.

Reliability and Validity in Clinical Assessment

Reliability refers to the consistency of assessment results over time or across different observers. Validity measures if the assessment accurately evaluates what it is supposed to. Both are important for the usefulness and credibility of assessment methods.

Criterion Validity

Criterion validity describes how well a test's results correspond to an external standard or criterion known to indicate the trait or behavior being measured.

Types of Assessment Methods

Assessment methods in clinical psychology include interviews, psychological tests, behavioral observation, and self-report questionnaires. Each type helps gather different kinds of information about the client's behavior, thoughts, and emotions.

Interviews

Interviews are structured or unstructured conversations between a clinician and a client used to gather information about the client's history, symptoms, and current functioning.

Clinical Supervision and Consultation

Clinical supervision and consultation involve experienced professionals providing guidance, feedback, and support to other clinicians. This helps ensure ethical, effective, and professional care for clients.

Foundations of Clinical Supervision

Foundations of Clinical Supervision refers to the basic principles, theories, and frameworks that guide the process of supervising clinical psychologists. It includes understanding the purpose of supervision, the roles of supervisors and supervisees, and the goals of fostering professional development and ensuring client welfare.

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) is a structured, time-limited form of psychotherapy that focuses on changing unhelpful thoughts and behaviors to improve emotional well-being.

Depression

Depression is a mood disorder that causes persistent feelings of sadness, loss of interest, and can affect daily functioning. CBT helps individuals identify and change negative thought patterns that contribute to depression.

PTSD

PTSD, or post-traumatic stress disorder, is a mental health condition that can develop after experiencing or witnessing a traumatic event. CBT for PTSD focuses on processing trauma memories and reducing distressing symptoms.