Princeton Review AP Environmental Science Chapter 4

solid earth

earth's solid, rocky outer shell

lithosphere

a thin, rigid layer of rock that serves as the earth's outer shell, of which interacts the most with the other spheres

atmosphere

the envelope of gases that surrounds earth; held close to the earth by the force of gravity

hydrosphere

earth's oceans and freshwater bodies

pedosphere

the outermost layer of the Earth that is composed of soil (more commonly known as soil)

geologic time scale

a record of the geologic events and life forms in Earth's history

inner core

solid inner sphere that contains mostly nickel and iron; it is solid to the tremendous pressure of overlying matter

outer core

semi-solid outer sphere comprised mostly of iron, nickel and some lighter elements; semi-solid due to low pressure

mantle

the layer of mostly solid rock flowing rock between the crust and the core

asthenosphere

a layer of slowly moving flowing rock, over which the tectonic plates move

crust

the solid surface of the earth (above the asthenosphere)

Pangea

a supercontinent formed during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic Eras, of which encapsulated all land material on earth

tectonic plates

the several large pieces of lithosphere that move slowly over the mantle of the earth (about 1 dozen: 6 continental and 6 oceanic)

plate boundaries

the edges of tectonic plates

Nazca Plate

plate that consists of only oceanic crust

convergent boundary

a plate boundary in which two plates are pushed toward and into each other; one slides beneath the other and is pushed deep into the mantle

divergent boundary

a plate boundary in which two plates move away from each other; creates a gap between plates that may be filled with rising magma, which- once cooled- forms new crust

transform fault boundary

a plate boundary in which two plates slide against each other in opposite directions

subduction

a heavy ocean plate is pushed below the other plate and melts as it encounters the hot mantle (occurs with ocean-continent convergence and ocean-ocean convergence)

orogeny

the uplifting of plates that form large mountain chains as they crunch into each other(occurs with continent-continent convergence)

volcanoes

mountains formed by pressure from magma rising from earth's interior

active volcanoes

volcanoes that are currently erupting or have erupted within recorded history (past 10,000 years)

dormant volcanoes

volcanoes that have not been known to erupt in recorded history (past 10,000 years)

extinct volcanoes

volcanoes that will probably not erupt again

subduction zones

occur at convergent boundaries between oceanic and continental plates (occasionally between two oceanic plates); subjecting plate is recycled into new magma, which rises through the overlying plate to create volcanoes inland

rift valleys

occur at divergent boundaries, usually between two oceanic plates; new ocean floor is formed as magma fills in the gap between separating plates (magma rising from the rift valleys is made of basaltic materials and forms pillow lava upon contact with cold water (may also occur between continental plates- Mt. Kilimanjaro)

hot spots

places where molten material from the mantle reaches the lithosphere; do not form at plate boundaries, but rather form in the middle of tectonic plates in locations where columns of unusually hot magma melt through the mantle and weaken the earth's crust

shield volcanoes

have a broad base with gentle slopes; generally form over oceanic hot spots and usually have mild eruptions with slow lava flow (when water enters the flow, they may be explosive with the forming of pyroclastic flows)

pyroclastic flow

a fluidized mixture of hot ash and rock

composite volcanoes

have a broad base and are tall with gentle slopes; formed at subduction zones and are associated with violent eruptions that eject lava, water, and gases as superheated ash and stones

cinder volcanoes

(MOST COMMON TYPE OF VOLCANO) small, short, and steeply sloped cones; form when molten lava erupts and cools quickly in the air, hardening into porous rocks (cinders) that fracture as they hit earth's surface; generally form near other types of volcanoes

lava domes

small and short with steep slopes and a rounded top; formed from lava that is too viscous to travel far but instead hardens into a dome shape; often occurs near or inside other types of volcanoes

earthquakes

the result of vibrations caused by sudden moving of stress overcoming a locked fault deep in the earth that release stored energy; mainly occur at transform boundaries

focus

the location at which the earthquake happens within the earth

epicenter

the point on the Earth's surface directly above the focus of an earthquake; the initial surface location of the earthquake on earth

seismograph

an Instrument that measures the size or magnitude of earthquakes; devised by Charles Richter

Richter Scale

measures the amplitude of the highest S-wave of an earthquake; values range from 0-9, although there is theoretically no maximum value; each increase in the scale corresponds to an increase of approximately 33 times the energy of the previous number

tsunamis

very large waves or chains of waves caused by the movement of the earth during an earthquake or volcanic eruption, which can be very detructive

rock cycle

the series of processes that change one type of rock into another type of rock

igneous rock

results when rock is melted (by heat and pressure below the crust) into a liquid and then solidifies when cooled (ex. basalt)

magma

molten rock

sedimentary rock

formed as sediment (eroded rocks and the remains plants and animals) builds up and is compressed; can form underwater when sediments or dissolved minerals deposit on a stream bed or ocean floor; become compressed as more material is deposited and then cemented together (ex. limestone)

metamorphic rock

formed as a great deal of pressure and heat produces physical and/or chemical in existing rock (existing rock could have originally been igneous, sedimentary, or another metamorphic rock); occurs as sedimentary rocks sink deeper into the earth and are heated by the high temperatures found in the earth's mantle (ex. shale)

troposphere

extends from earth's surface to 12km at poles and 20 km at equator; where all of the weather that we experience takes place; contains 99% of all of atmosphere's water vapor and clouds; gases well mixed as it gets colder with altitude; densest atmospheric layer (contains 75-80% of earth's atmospheric mass)

greenhouse effect

the trapping of the sun's warmth in a planet's lower atmosphere due to the greater transparency of the atmosphere to visible radiation from the sun than to infrared radiation emitted from the planet's surface

air

78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and remaining 1% greenhouse gases

tropopause

a layer atop the troposphere that acts as a buffer between the troposphere and the stratosphere; where the jet streams travel

stratosphere

atmospheric layer directly above the troposphere that extends 20-50km above earth's surface; gases not well mixed; temperatures increase with distance from earth; less dense and drier than troposphere

ozone (O3)

exists in the lower half of the stratosphere; traps the heat energy radiation of the sun, holding some of the heat and protecting the troposphere and earth's surface from this radiation

S-wave

(shear wave) a seismic body wave that shakes the ground up and down or side to side, perpendicular to the direction the wave is moving

wave

a disturbance that transfers energy from one place to another

mesosphere

atmospheric layer between the stratosphere and the thermosphere; extends about 80km above earth's surface; the area where meteors usually burn up; temperatures decrease to the atmosphere's coldest point at the top of this layer (-90 degrees C)

thermosphere

atmospheric layer between the mesosphere and the exosphere; extends from 80-500 km above earth; gases very thin (rare); where the auroras occur

exosphere

furthest layer of the atmosphere; 10,000 km and beyond above earth; thinnest concentration of gases; where human-made satellites orbit (as well as in the upper thermosphere)

ionosphere

not a distinctive layer; dispersed throughout the upper mesosphere, the thermosphere, and the lower exosphere; comprises regions of ionized gases that absorb most of the energetic charged particles from the sun- the protons and electrons of solar wind; reflects radio waves- makes long-distance radio communication possible

weather

the day-to-day properties such as wind speed and direction, temperature, amount of sunlight, pressure, and humidity

climate

weather patterns that are constant over many years (30 years or more) (TWO MOST IMPORTANT ARE AVERAGE TEMPERATURE AND AVERAGE PRECIPITATION AMOUNTS!!!)

meteorologists

scientists who study weather and climate

convection currents

vertical air flow caused by heat energy being transferred to the atmosphere by radiation heating, where it expands, becomes less dense, and rises

horizontal air flow

cool air that flows along earth's surface to occupy the area vacated by warm air; one way that surface winds are created

dew point

the temperature at which water vapor condenses into liquid water

precipitation

any form of water that falls from clouds and reaches Earth's surface (can be frozen or liquid)

convection cell

a circular pattern of air rising, air sinking, and wind

Hadley cells

a large-scale atmospheric convection cell in which air rises at the equator and sinks at medium latitudes, typically about 30° north or south

insolation

the amount of solar radiation that reaches a given area

revolution

trip around the sun (in terms of earth)

rotation

the spinning of earth on its axis (in terms of earth)

axis

an imaginary line about which a body rotates (earth's axial tilt is 23.5 degrees)

albedo

the percentage of incoming sunlight (insolation) reflected from a surface; lower the albedo- more solar radiation absorbed; albedo of 0- no reflection of all incoming radiation; albedo of 1- reflection of all incoming radiation

wind

air that's moving as a result of the unequal heating of earth's atmosphere; moves heat, moisture, soil, and pollution around the planet

trade winds

prevailing winds that blow from east to west from 30 degrees latitude to the equator in both hemispheres; 11-13 mph; caused by surface currents of the Hadley cells; steady and somewhat predictable patterns

northeast trade winds

trade winds that blow from the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere

southeast trade winds

trade winds that blow from the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere

westerly

a type of moving air mass that results from air being deflected south and west in the northern hemisphere and north and west in the southern hemisphere near the equator (Coriolis effect) (COMES FROM THE WEST NOT THE EAST)

Ferrel cell

movement of air that accounts for westerlies; opposite of Hadley cells but has same thermodynamic principles

Polar easterlies

cold winds that blow from the east to the west near the North Pole and South Pole; formed by the Coriolis effect

Coriolis effect

causes moving air and water to turn left in the southern hemisphere and turn right in the northern hemisphere due to Earth's hemisphere

horse latitudes

regions of high pressure and gentle winds at about 30 degrees north and south latitude; subsiding dry air and high pressure results in weak winds

doldrums

region 5 degrees north and south of the equator with relatively still air due to it constantly rising rather than blowing

Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)

an area of Earth that receives the most intense sunlight; where the ascending branches of the two Hadley cells converge; the area containing the doldrums

jet stream

high-speed currents of wind that occur in the tropopause that have a large influence on local weather patterns

monsoons

seasonal winds that are usually accompanied by very heavy rainfall.; occur when land heats up and cools down more quickly than water does; hot air rises from heated land, creating a low-pressure system; rising air quickly replaced by cooler moist air that flows from over ocean surface; moisture carried is released in steady seasonal rainfall as air rises over land and cools

lake effect

small-scale monsoon effect in which air moves in from lake, creating a breeze; reverse occurs at night: land cools more quickly than water- air over lake rises; air mass from land moves over lake to replace rising air, creating a breeze

rain shadow effect

precipitation falls on the windward side of a mountain range, resulting in lush vegetation & a warm, moist climate on one side, but a desert area on the leeward side (ex. Olympic rainforest in Washington state)

hurricanes

tropical storms with wind speeds greater than 120 km/hr; rotating winds remove water vapor from ocean's surface, and heat is released as water vapor condenses- contributes to faster wind speeds (called this in the Atlantic Ocean)

typhoons/cyclones

hurricanes in the Pacific Ocean

Southern Oscillation

a reversal of airflow between normally low atmospheric pressure over the western Pacific; the cause of El Nino

El Nino

an irregularly occurring and complex series of climatic changes affecting the equatorial Pacific region that appears every 3-7 years, characterized by the appearance of unusually warm, nutrient-poor water off northern Peru and Ecuador, typically in late December.

La Nina

a cooling of the ocean surface off the western coast of South America, occurring periodically every 4 to 12 years and affecting Pacific and other weather patterns (nutrient-rich waters)

ENSO

El Niño Southern Oscillation, alterations of atmospheric conditions that lead to el niños or la niñas

3.5

ocean salinity

freshwater

water that contains only minimal quantities of dissolved salts; ultimately comes from precipitation of atmospheric water vapor that reaches inland lakes, rivers, and groundwater directly or by melting of ice

watershed

the land area that drains into a particular stream; drainage basin

headwaters

the source of a stream or river

deltas

the triangle-shaped deposit of sand and sediment that occurs where a river flows into an ocean

estuaries

sites where the "arm" of the sea extends inland to meet the mouth of a river; often rich with many types of plant and animal species due to water's high concentration of nutrients and sediments; shallow with warm water (ex. saltwater marshes, mangrove forests, inlets, bays, and river mouths)

epilimnion

the uppermost and most oxygenated layer of freshwater

hypolimnion

the lower, colder, and denser layer of freshwater

thermocline

the line of demarcation between two layers of water to rise

littoral zone

begin with very shallow freshwater at shoreline and ends at depth at which rooted plants stop growing; many plants and animals that receive abundant sunlight