bcs111 exam 1

a.  How does introspection work in structuralism? What’s the purpose of it? Is it reliable?

• Structuralism studies the “what” of the mind by breaking mental processes into elements (sensations, images, feelings). Introspection asks participants to describe their conscious experience in detail. Its goal is to identify mental structure, but it is unreliable because it’s subjective and not measurable 

a.  What is the role of experience in empiricism?

• holds that all knowledge is derived from experience — humans build understanding by accumulating sensory observations rather than innate knowledge

a.  What is studied in functionalism?

• Functionalism examines the purpose or function of mental processes — the “why” of cognition — asking how the mind helps organisms adapt and survive 

b.  What’s the difference between structuralism and functionalism?

Structuralism looks at what the mind is made of — the parts of our thoughts and feelings.
Functionalism looks at what the mind does — how our thoughts help us adapt and function in everyday life.

a.  How is the ecological approach related to functionalism?

•  The ecological approach builds on functionalism by studying cognition in real-world contexts to understand how people interact with their environments

b.  What are the methods used in this approach?

• Observations of behavior in natural settings, controlled ecological tasks, and real-world experiments are used to examine cognition in context.

c.  How does our memory search relate to the ecological approach?

Our memory search relates to the ecological approach because we remember things the way we do in real life — using context and cues from our environment, not random lists in a lab.
It focuses on how memory works in everyday situations, like remembering where you left your phone by retracing your steps.

Which task adopts the ecological approach? How does it work?

• Tasks such as real-world memory searches or naturalistic observation (e.g., recalling items from daily activities) reflect ecological design — they mirror how cognition functions in everyday life.

a.  How do behaviorists investigate/explain human behavior? Why do they oppose the idea of introspection?

• Behaviorists study observable stimulus-response relationships, focusing on measurable behavior and reinforcement. They reject introspection because mental states are unobservable and unscientific

b.  What is classical conditioning and operant conditioning? Examples?

• Classical conditioning: Learning by association (e.g., Pavlov’s dogs salivating to a bell).
  
  

Operant conditioning: Learning through reinforcement or punishment (e.g., Skinner’s box with lever pressing for food)

a.  What are the major claims in nativism?

• Nativism asserts that certain cognitive structures are innate — humans are “pre-wired” for specific abilities like language acquisition. It opposes behaviorism’s view of learning as entirely experience-based

b.  How did Chomsky vs Skinner differ in their views about language?

• Chomsky: Language ability is innate, driven by a universal grammar.
  
  

Skinner: Language is learned behavior through reinforcement and imitation

a.  What is the difference between independent and dependent variables?

• The independent variable is manipulated by the experimenter;

• the dependent variable is the measured outcome affected by the manipulation.

b.  What is a “confounding” variable? How might they impact data?

•  A variable other than the independent variable that affects the dependent variable, making results ambiguous or invalid.

What’s the difference between “between-subject” vs “within-subject” design?

Between-subject design: Different groups of people experience different conditions (e.g., one group drinks coffee, another doesn’t).

Within-subject design: The same people experience all conditions (e.g., everyone is tested both with and without coffee).

Yes, some experiments use both — called a mixed design.
Example: testing two groups (young vs. old) where each person in both groups tries two types of memory tasks.

         ○What are the two major technologies used?

EEG / fMRI

○ What are the main differences between MRI vs EEG?

MRI: Shows brain structure — what the brain looks like.
EEG: Shows brain activity over time — when the brain is active.

○ What are the main differences between fMRI and MRI?

•  fMRI measures brain activity (blood oxygenation level changes), while MRI provides static anatomical images.

MRI: Shows what the brain looks like (structure).
fMRI: Shows what the brain is doing (activity).

○ Compare/contrast the use of EEG vs fMRI? Limitations of both?

EEG: Shows when brain activity happens — very fast but blurry on location.
fMRI: Shows where brain activity happens — clear location but slow timing.
MRI: Shows the brain’s structure — what it looks like, not activity.

•  fMRI measures brain activity (blood oxygenation level changes), while MRI provides static anatomical images. EEG captures rapid activity but cannot localize it precisely; fMRI localizes activity well but misses quick temporal changes

  What kind of research questions can be answered by EEG and fMRI,

Respectively?

• EEG: time-course questions (“when” processes occur).
  
  

  • fMRI: localization questions (“where” processes occur).
    
    

➔   What are some examples of behavioral tasks we can use to investigate the time course of cognitive processes?

Reaction-time tasks, priming paradigms, and eye-tracking are key behavioral measures 

How does priming work and how does it test the time course of processing?

• Exposure to one stimulus influences response to another; faster responses indicate automatic activation of related concepts.

b. How does eye-tracking tell us the time course of processing?

 E.g. in the Blumenfeld and Marian 2013 study, what does the eye tracking data for target vs. competitor reveal about activation of the language mode in monolinguals vs. bilinguals?

-  In bilinguals, eye fixations showed both languages were active simultaneously — evidence of parallel activation of language system

●   What’s the key difference between box-and-arrow and connectionist model? Examples of both models?

Box-and-arrow model: Explains thinking as step-by-step stages (like boxes connected by arrows).

Connectionist model: Works more like a brain network, with many parts active at once — parallel processing instead of one step at a time.

●   What is bottom-up and top-down processing? Examples?

Bottom-up processing starts with the raw sensory input — information comes from the senses to the brain. Your perception builds from the details upward.
🧠 Example: You see an unfamiliar animal, notice its fur, claws, and tail, then figure out it’s a raccoon.

Top-down processing uses your knowledge, experience, and expectations to interpret what you sense.
🧠 Example: You spot something furry at night and assume it’s your cat — even before clearly seeing it.

Front: Why is observation an ecological approach?

Back: Because it studies cognition in real-world, natural contexts where behavior occurs organically.

Front: What is controlled observation?

Back: Observations with some control or manipulation of variables while preserving ecological validity.

Examples of observational methods?

• Naturalistic: observing people in real life.

• Non-naturalistic: staged or lab simulations.

• Controlled: structured observation in realistic contexts

●   When might an observational experimental approach be preferable to a non-observational, controlled laboratory experiment?

When studying complex, real-world behavior that can’t be reproduced ethically or authentically in a lab.

●  What’s the major goal of evolutionary studies?

To trace how cognitive abilities evolved and how adaptive functions shaped modern intelligence

Difference between white and gray matter?

White matter = myelinated axons transmitting information; Gray matter = cell bodies processing information

●  Can we create a one-to-one mapping from brain functions to brain regions?

Faculty Psychology proposed specific brain regions control different mental functions. Phrenology incorrectly mapped traits to skull bumps and is invalid because mental functions are distributed, not localized

No — we can’t create a one-to-one mapping between brain functions and regions.

🧠 Why:

• Most brain functions are distributed across multiple regions, not limited to one spot.

• The brain works through networks that interact and share tasks.

• Example: Language involves Broca’s area (production), Wernicke’s area (comprehension), and other connected areas — not just one region.

👉 So, each function involves multiple regions, and each region can support multiple functions.

What are Faculty Psychology and Phrenology? Why is phrenology not really a valid theory for the brain and its functions?

Faculty Psychology: The idea that different mental abilities (like memory, language, or emotion) are controlled by specific parts of the brain.

Phrenology: An early (and incorrect) theory that claimed you could read someone’s personality or mental traits by the bumps on their skull.

Why it’s invalid: Because skull shape doesn’t reflect brain function — brain areas don’t work in isolation, and there’s no scientific link between bumps and behavior.

frontal

language production, motor control, cognitive control/self-processing

temporal

auditory processing, language comprehension, object/face recognition

Parietal

: attention, primary somatosensory cortex

Occipital

visual processing

Thalamus

relays info to cortex

hypothalamus 

regulation of thirst, hunger, desire, and temperature

Hippocampus

memory

amygdala

emotion

a. What does it mean for a function to be lateralized and how is this studied?

A lateralized function means that one side of the brain (left or right hemisphere) controls or specializes in a certain task.

🧠 Examples:

• Left hemisphere → language and logic

• Right hemisphere → spatial skills and creativity

It’s studied using split-brain patients, brain imaging (fMRI, EEG), or cases of brain damage to see which side handles specific functions.

 If the corpus callosum is cut (split brain) and an object is presented to the left visual field, will the subject be able to name and recognize the object? Why? What if the object is presented to the right visual field?

Left visual field: Right brain sees it → can’t name it but can recognize it.
Right visual field: Left brain sees it → can name and describe it.

If a patient was born without their left hemisphere, it turned out they could still talk almost like a normal person (although their development was delayed). What’s the main reason for this?

Because of brain plasticity — the right hemisphere can take over language functions when the left side is missing early in life.

Goal of the study: What was the original function of Broca’s area?

Sequential pattern processing — not language-specific but general sequence learning

            When is Broca’s area activated in verbal and non-verbal tasks?

Broca’s area is active during both verbal tasks (like speaking or forming sentences) and non-verbal tasks that involve sequencing or rule-based patterns, such as organizing actions or learning patterns without words.

● What does it mean for a sequence to be grammatical? What are some examples of non-linguistic sequences?

A grammatical sequence follows a set of rules or patterns that make it organized and meaningful.

🗣 Example (linguistic): “The cat chased the mouse.” — correct order of words.
🎵 Non-linguistic examples: a rhythm pattern in music, dance steps, or hand movements that follow a specific order or rule.

● What are the implications of the study (Petersson et al., 2012) on implicit sequential learning? How does the experiment work? What’s the goal of the study?

Goal: To test whether Broca’s area is specific to language or supports general sequence learning.

Experiment: Participants viewed non-language symbol sequences that either followed or broke hidden “grammar-like” rules. Their brain activity was measured during learning.

Implications:

• Broca’s area activated for both language and non-language sequences.

• This shows it helps process structured patterns and rules, not just language — proving it’s key for implicit (unconscious) sequence learning in general.

What is the difference between perceiving something and recognizing it?

Perceiving something means sensing and interpreting what’s in front of you (seeing, hearing, or feeling it).
Recognizing means identifying what it is based on memory or experience.

🧠 Example: You perceive a face → you recognize it as your friend.

●  What is the role of perception in recognition? Make sure you understand the processing of recognizing something you already know vs. encountering a new instance.

Perception provides the raw input — it’s how you detect and interpret sensory information (like seeing shapes, colors, or motion).
Recognition builds on perception — it’s when your brain compares what you see to stored memories to identify what it is.

• When you recognize something you already know, your brain quickly matches the percept to a stored representation in long-term memory (for example, instantly identifying your friend’s face).

• When you encounter something new, perception still happens, but there’s no stored match, so your brain may focus on features to learn and form a new memory or category.

In short: Perception gives you the input; recognition gives it meaning

●  What is the typical perception route? Distal vs. Proximal stimulus vs. Percept?

The typical perception route has three main stages:

1. Distal stimulus – the actual object in the outside world (e.g., a dog you see).

2. Proximal stimulus – the image or signal that reaches your sensory organ (like the light pattern hitting your retina).

3. Percept – your mental interpretation of what you see (your brain recognizes it as “a dog”).

Ventral vs. dorsal?

Ventral stream: the “what” pathway — helps you recognize and identify objects (in the temporal lobe).
🧠 Example: Knowing that what you see is a cat.

Dorsal stream: the “where/how” pathway — helps you locate objects and guide movement (in the parietal lobe).

●  What are the neural pathways of perception in the brain? What information do they carry?

There are two main perception pathways in the brain:

• Ventral (“what”) pathway: Goes to the temporal lobe, identifies what you’re seeing.

• Dorsal (“where/how”) pathway: Goes to the parietal lobe, figures out where things are and how to act on them.

What does “Gestalt” mean?

Whole” — we see complete patterns, not separate parts.

What is holistic processing?

Seeing the whole picture first, then the details — our brain naturally groups things together.

What is the Gestalt principle of proximity?.

Back: Things close together are seen as a group.
🟣 Example: Dots near each other look like one cluster.

What is the Gestalt principle of similarity?

Things that look alike (color, shape, size) are grouped.
🔵 Example: A row of red dots stands out among blue ones.

What is the Gestalt principle of continuity?

We see smooth, continuous lines instead of sharp breaks.
🟢 Example: A curving road instead of random segments.

What is the Gestalt principle of closure?

Back: We fill in gaps to see a complete figure.
⚫ Example: Seeing a full circle even if parts are missing.

What is the Gestalt principle of figure-ground?

We separate an object (figure) from its background (ground).
⚪ Example: The vase vs. two faces illusion.

categorical perception

we hear or see a continuous range of stimuli (like sounds) but perceive them as distinct categories instead of gradual changes — for example, hearing a clear difference between /p/ and /b/, even if the acoustic change is gradual

○ What is a typical categorical perception graph like?

○ How do we identify the perceptual boundary? Can this boundary be shifted?

We find the perceptual boundary where people switch from saying one category to another (the midpoint on the S-curve).

Yes — the boundary can shift with experience or language, like when speakers of different languages hear sounds differently.

prototype matching

Prototype matching means we recognize new things by comparing them to an average or ideal example stored in long term memory.

For example, when you see a new bird, you compare it to your mental “prototype” of a bird (like a robin or sparrow). If it’s similar enough, you identify it as a bird.

This was shown in Posner & Keele’s dot pattern study, where people could recognize new patterns similar to the unseen prototype — proving that we form a general mental average rather than memorizing each example

exemplar matching

An exemplar is a specific example or instance stored in memory that you compare new stimuli to when recognizing something.

🧠 Example: You recognize a new dog by comparing it to specific dogs you’ve met before, not just a general “dog” idea.

feature analysis

use certain distinctive feature of the input for recognition

🧠 Example: To recognize the letter “A,” your brain detects two diagonal lines and one horizontal line and puts them together.

Posner & Keele Dot Pattern Study (prototype matching)

Training:
Participants were shown different dot patterns that belonged to several categories. Each category had an unseen prototype — the average pattern, which was never shown during training.

Testing:
Participants then saw a mix of:

• Old patterns (from training),

• New patterns (similar but unseen), and

• Prototype patterns (the unseen averages).

They were asked to classify each pattern into a category.

---

Results:
People recognized the unseen prototypes just as well as the old patterns — even though they had never actually seen them before.

key points for posner and keele’s study 

Even though the prototype was never shown, participants recognized it — meaning they formed an internal average (prototype) during training.
This supports prototype theory — we generalize from examples to build a mental “best example” of a category.

issues with exemplar matching

• Too memory-heavy: It would require storing every single example we’ve ever encountered.

• Slower recognition: Comparing each new item to all stored exemplars takes more time.

• Poor generalization: It doesn’t explain how we easily recognize new objects we’ve never seen before

What is the ABX task and what does it tell us about prototypes and exemplars?

The ABX task is a classic experiment used to study how people categorize and recognize stimuli — it helps researchers understand whether people rely on prototypes or exemplars when recognizing new information (perception and recognition)

Geon:

(the building block of an object)

What is a geon? How does this approach relate to visual search? Implications?

In visual search tasks, we detect objects faster when they have distinct features or geons that stand out (like a red circle among green squares). If objects share similar features, search becomes slower.

Implications : This shows that recognition depends on analyzing parts and their arrangement, not memorizing whole objects — our brains use feature combinations to quickly identify what we see.

top down processing: word superiority

word superiority effect in letter recognition task: faster letter identification when presented in a real world (contextual effect)

Can we attend to an external stimulus without perceiving it? Also, can we attend to an internal mental event (e.g. an idea or a thought) without perceiving it?

• You can attend to something external (like a faint sound or a light) without clearly perceiving it if it’s too weak or quick.

• You can also focus on an internal thought or idea (like trying to remember a name) without using your senses.

What is Filter Theory?

irrelevant info filtered out through 'bottleneck' (ex: driving and don't notice Joan store)

• Limited capacity to process information 

○ How do we use dichotic listening tasks to test selective attention?

• Participants repeat what they heard (from either ear) - shadowing

• Most people can repeat the attended message from one ear with very few errors

• If the unattended message sounds weird (eg backward speech) some people can notice the difference 

○ What is the functionalism perspective on selective attention?

: It views attention as a tool that helps us adapt and function efficiently, selecting what’s useful in real-world settings rather than processing everything

cocktail party 

The ability to hear your name or something important in a noisy room even when you’re not focused on it.

🧠 It shows that unattended info is still processed at some level, challenging strict filter theory — attention can “leak”

○ How does the switch-ear task work? Does it support the filter theory?

In this task, two messages play in opposite ears and then switch sides halfway through.
People usually follow the story’s meaning instead of the same ear, showing that attention isn’t a strict filter — meaning can guide attention too.

• does not fully support the filter theory 

What is the attenuation theory?

It says unattended info isn’t completely blocked — it’s weakened, but meaningful info (like your name) can still grab attention

What is the spotlight theory?

Attention works like a beam of light — we focus on one area of space, and info within that area is processed more deeply

What is the schema theory?

only relevant info enters the processing route

How are filter and attenuation theories different from spotlight and schema?

• Filter/attenuation: Passive — attention filters or weakens info automatically.

• Spotlight/schema: Active — we choose what to focus on using goals or context

Which theories are passive and which are active?

• Passive: Filter, attenuation.

• Active: Spotlight, schema

How does arousal affect attention?

Moderate arousal = best focus; too low or too high = poor attention control

Q: What is the dual-task paradigm?

A: A method where you do two tasks at once (e.g., listening while typing) to test how well attention can be divided. Performance drops when both tasks need the same cognitive resources, showing attention is limited

What does the dual-task paradigm tell us about divided attention?

A: It shows we can divide attention, but it’s not perfect — tasks interfere when they use similar processes (like both needing verbal or visual working memory

What are examples of dividing your attention?

A: Talking while driving, listening to music while studying, or texting while walking.

Q: When is there the most interference?

A: When both tasks use the same type of resource (e.g., two verbal tasks or two visual tasks). Less interference happens when the tasks use different systems (like one visual and one auditory)

What is controlled processing?

A: It’s slow, effortful, and conscious — used for new or complex tasks that require focus (e.g., learning to drive or typing for the first time)

What is automatic processing?

A: It’s fast, effortless, and unconscious — used for familiar or well-practiced tasks (e.g., reading words or driving a familiar route

Q: What are the main differences between controlled and automatic processing?

:

• Controlled = requires attention and awareness

• Automatic = runs without awareness once learned

• Controlled can become automatic with practice (e.g., learning a language or typing)

Q: How do you test controlled vs. automatic processing?

Using the Schneider & Shiffrin (1977) visual search task:

• Consistent mapping: same targets every time → becomes automatic

• Varied mapping: changing targets → stays controlled and effortful

Schneider and Shiffrin 

Here’s a clear, simplified breakdown of Schneider & Shiffrin (1977)’s visual search task — exactly as covered in your BCS111 notes:

---

🧠 Experiment Design

• Independent Variables:

  • Mapping type — consistent vs. varied

  • Frame display time, frame set size, and memory set size

• Dependent Variable:

  • Reaction time (RT) and accuracy when identifying target letters/numbers.

---

🔄 Mapping Conditions

• Consistent Mapping:
  Targets and distractors never switch roles (e.g., letters are always targets, numbers are always distractors).
  → Leads to automatic processing — fast and effortless.

• Varied Mapping:
  Targets and distractors change across trials (a target one trial could be a distractor next).
  → Requires controlled processing — slow and effortful.

---

📈 Results & Trends

• Consistent mapping:
  Reaction time stays flat (automatic → unaffected by set size or frame time).

• Varied mapping:
  Reaction time increases with larger set sizes and longer display times (controlled → resource-demanding).

---

🎯 Response Classification

• Hit: Target present, correctly detected

• Miss: Target present, not detected

• False alarm: Target absent, incorrectly reported as present

• Correct rejection: Target absent, correctly ignored

---

💡 Key Findings

• Automatic processing develops with practice — fast, parallel, and unaffected by distractions.

• Controlled processing is slow and limited — each item must be checked one by one.

• The varied vs. consistent mapping contrast demonstrates how practice turns controlled tasks into automatic ones.

attention shift task

• What it is: Participants alternate between paying attention to an external task (like a visual cue or stimulus) and an internal task (like recalling information or imagining something).

• What it tests: This task examines executive control — how the brain manages switching attention and prevents interference between different types of processing.

• Executive control role: The prefrontal cortex and parietal regions help redirect focus, maintain task goals, and inhibit irrelevant information during each shift .

zimmerman

• Zimmermann et al. (2012) — Neural Underpinnings of Attention

  Process shown:
  This study shows how the brain shifts attention between internal focus (thinking) and external focus (acting).

  ---

  i. Experiment paradigm:
  Participants switched between:

  • Internal focus: imagining an action (thinking about pressing a button)

  • External focus: actually performing the button press

  ---

  ii. Brain areas activated:

  • Switching to internal focus: activates the somatosensory cortex (S1)

  • Switching to external focus: activates both the premotor cortex (PMC) and somatosensory cortex (S1)

  ---

  🧠 In short:
  Switching attention uses executive control, and the brain recruits different regions depending on whether the focus is internal (thinking) or external (acting).

What is hemineglect? What does it tell us about the brain area that is involved in attention?

Hemineglect:
A condition where a person ignores one side of space, usually the left side, after damage to the right parietal lobe.

What it tells us:
The right parietal lobe plays a key role in spatial attention — it helps us focus on and be aware of both sides of space.
Damage to it causes loss of attention to the opposite (left) side.

sensory memory

Three major memory processes:

1. Encoding — getting info in

2. Storage — keeping info over time

3. Retrieval — bringing stored info back to mind

Types of sensory memory (by sense):

• Iconic → visual

• Echoic → auditory

• Haptic → touch

• Olfactory → smell

• Gustatory → taste