Unit 3 Development & Learning

Developmental Psychology

The scientific study of how and why human beings change over the course of their life, encompassing physical, cognitive, social, and emotional development.

Stability and Change

A concept in developmental psychology that explores the degree to which our characteristics remain the same versus how they evolve throughout our lives.

Nature vs Nurture

A debate regarding the relative contributions of genetic inheritance (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) to human development.

Continuous Stages of Development

A perspective in developmental psychology that views development as a smooth, gradual process without distinct stages.

Discontinuous Stages of Development

A viewpoint that posits development occurs in distinct, separate phases, with significant changes in abilities and behaviors at each stage.

Teratogens

Substances that can cause malformation or abnormal development in a fetus when exposed during pregnancy, such as alcohol or certain medications.

Genetic Mutations

Alterations in the DNA sequence that can lead to genetic disorders or variations; these changes can be inherited or occur spontaneously.

Prenatal

Referring to the time period that occurs before birth, encompassing all developmental processes that take place in the womb.

Infancy

The early stage of life from birth to approximately 2 years, characterized by rapid physical and cognitive development.

Childhood

The stage of development from ages 2 to around 12 years, marked by significant growth in language, social skills, and cognitive abilities.

Gross Motor Skills

Physical abilities involving large muscle movements, such as walking, running, and climbing, which develop in early childhood.

Fine Motor Skills

Smaller, more precise movements involving the hands and fingers, such as writing or buttoning a shirt, developing as children grow.

Milestones

Significant developmental achievements or skills that are expected to be reached at certain ages, such as walking or speaking first words.

Reflexes

Automatic responses to stimuli, such as blinking or grasping, that are present at birth and serve protective functions.

Rooting Reflex

A reflex action in infants that involves turning the head toward a stimulus (like a touch on the cheek) to find food.

Visual Cliff

A laboratory device used to test depth perception in infants, involving a seemingly dangerous drop-off that assesses their ability to perceive depth.

Critical Periods

Specific time frames in development during which certain experiences or stimuli are necessary for normal development; missing these can lead to deficits.

Imprinting

A form of rapid learning occurring in a young animal or human, often during a critical period, where they form attachments to a caregiver or object.

Adolescence

The transitional stage of development between childhood and adulthood, typically ranging from ages 12 to 18, marked by physical, emotional, and social change.

Growth Spurt

A rapid increase in height and weight that typically occurs during puberty, often resulting in noticeable changes in body proportions.

Puberty

The stage of development during which individuals undergo physical changes leading to sexual maturity, usually occurring between ages 10 and 14 for girls and 12 and 16 for boys.

Primary Sex Characteristics

The physical attributes directly involved in reproduction, such as the ovaries and testes, that develop during puberty.

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Features that develop during puberty but are not directly related to reproduction, such as breast development in females and facial hair in males.

Menarche

The first occurrence of menstruation in females, marking the beginning of reproductive capability.

Spermarche

The first ejaculation in males, indicating the onset of reproductive capability.

Adulthood

The stage of human development that follows adolescence, characterized by full physical maturity, the ability to reproduce, and often the assumption of social roles and responsibilities.

Gender

The social and cultural characteristics and behaviors that a society considers appropriate for men and women.

Sex

The biological distinction between females and males, typically based on reproductive anatomy and genetic differences.

Gender Identity

An individual's personal sense of their gender, which may or may not correspond with the sex they were assigned at birth.

Sexual Orientation

A person's emotional, romantic, or sexual attraction to individuals of the same or different genders. Common orientations include heterosexuality, homosexuality, and bisexuality.

Cisgender

A term used to describe individuals whose gender identity matches the sex they were assigned at birth.

Transgender

A term for people whose gender identity differs from the sex they were assigned at birth.

Gender Dysphoria

The psychological distress that results from a discrepancy between an individual's gender identity and the sex they were assigned at birth.

Non-binary

A gender identity that does not fit within the traditional binary of male and female. Non-binary individuals may identify as both genders, neither, or somewhere along the gender spectrum.

Gender Expression

The external presentation of one's gender, through behavior, clothing, haircut, voice, and other attributes that may or may not align with societal expectations.

Heteronormativity

The assumption that heterosexuality is the default or normal sexual orientation, which can marginalize other orientations.

Sexual Fluidity

The idea that sexual orientation can change over time and is not fixed.

Queer

An umbrella term that encompasses a range of sexual orientations and gender identities outside of heterosexual and cisgender norms.

Intersectionality

A framework for understanding how various social identities (e.g., race, gender, sexuality) intersect and contribute to unique experiences of discrimination or privilege.

Gender Roles

Societal norms dictating the behaviors and responsibilities considered appropriate for individuals based on their gender.

LGBTQIA2+

An acronym representing a diverse spectrum of sexual orientations and gender identities, including Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer/Questioning, Intersex, Asexual, Two-Spirit, and others.

Stereotype

A widely held but oversimplified and generalized belief about a particular group of people, which can affect perceptions of gender and sexuality.

Ally

A person who supports and advocates for members of the LGBTQIA+ community, often working to promote equality and combat discrimination.

Coming Out

The process of an individual recognizing and disclosing their sexual orientation or gender identity to others.

Conversion Therapy

A controversial and discredited practice aimed at changing an individual's sexual orientation from homosexual or bisexual to heterosexual.

Gender Nonconformity

Behavior or gender expression that does not align with societal expectations for a specific gender.

Schema

A mental structure that organizes and interprets information, allowing individuals to categorize experiences and understand the world around them.

Assimilation

The process of incorporating new information into existing schemas without changing the schema. For example, a child who knows what a dog is may call a cat a dog because it shares similar characteristics.

Accommodation

The process of altering existing schemas or creating new ones in response to new information. For instance, when a child learns that not all four-legged animals are dogs, they modify their schema to include different types of animals.

Sensorimotor Stage

The first stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development (birth to approximately 2 years old) where infants learn about the world through their senses and actions. Key features include exploration and the development of object permanence.

Object Permanence

The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen. This concept typically develops during the sensorimotor stage.

Preoperational Stage

The second stage in Piaget’s theory (ages 2 to 7) characterized by symbolic thinking, egocentrism, and the inability to perform operations mentally. Children in this stage often engage in imaginative play and struggle with understanding the perspective of others.

Conservation

The understanding that certain properties of objects, such as volume or mass, remain the same despite changes in form or appearance. This concept is developed during the concrete operational stage.

Reversibility

The ability to understand that actions can be reversed, leading to the original state. For example, if you pour water from a tall glass into a wide bowl, a child who understands reversibility can recognize that the water can be poured back into the glass.

Animism

The belief that inanimate objects possess feelings, thoughts, and intentions. Children in the preoperational stage often exhibit animistic thinking, attributing life-like qualities to toys and objects.

Egocentrism

A characteristic of the preoperational stage where children have difficulty seeing things from perspectives other than their own. This does not imply selfishness but rather a cognitive limitation in understanding others' viewpoints.

Concrete Operational Stage

The third stage in Piaget’s theory (ages 7 to 11) where children gain a better understanding of mental operations. They can think logically about concrete events and understand concepts of conservation and reversibility.

Formal Operational Stage

The fourth stage in Piaget’s theory (ages 12 and up) characterized by the development of abstract thinking and hypothetical reasoning. Individuals can logically manipulate ideas and solve problems in a more systematic way.

Scaffolding

A teaching method that involves providing support to students as they learn new concepts. This support is gradually removed as the student becomes more proficient, allowing for independent learning.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

A concept introduced by Vygotsky that refers to the difference between what a learner can do without help and what they can do with guidance. Effective teaching occurs within this zone.

Crystallized Intelligence

The ability to use learned knowledge and experience, often reflected in vocabulary and factual knowledge. It tends to remain stable or even increase with age.

Fluid Intelligence

The capacity to think logically and solve problems in novel situations, independent of acquired knowledge. Fluid intelligence may decline with age.

Language

The systematic and conventional use of sounds, signs, or symbols to communicate meaning, express thoughts, and convey ideas between individuals.

Phonemes

The smallest units of sound in a spoken language that can distinguish one word from another (e.g., the difference between "bat" and "cat" is the initial phoneme /b versus /k/).

Morphemes

The smallest meaningful units in a language. These can be whole words (like "dog") or parts of words that carry meaning (like "-s" in "dogs" to indicate plural).

Semantics

The study of meaning in language; how words and phrases represent concepts and ideas. This includes understanding both literal and implied meanings of words.

Grammar

The system of rules governing how words and phrases are combined to create meaningful sentences in a language.

Syntax

The specific rules and principles that determine how words are arranged into phrases and sentences in a language (word order rules).

Cooing

An early stage of language development (typically 2-4 months) where infants produce vowel-like sounds, often in response to social interaction.

Babbling

A stage of language development (typically 6-8 months) characterized by the repetition of consonant-vowel combinations (like "ba-ba-ba" or "ma-ma-ma").

One-Word Stage

A period in language development (typically 12-18 months) when children begin using single words to express complete thoughts or desires (e.g., saying "milk" to mean "I want milk").

Telegraphic Speech

A stage of language development (typically 18-24 months) characterized by short, simple phrases using only essential words, similar to old telegrams (e.g., "Daddy go" instead of "Daddy is going").

Ecological Systems Theory

Bronfenbrenner's theory describing how different environmental systems interact to influence human development

Microsystem

The immediate environment where a person has direct interactions (family, school, peers)

Mesosystem

Connections between different microsystems (like home-school relationships)

Exosystem

External environments that indirectly affect development (parent's workplace)

Macrosystem

Cultural context, including beliefs, customs, and laws

Chronosystem

Changes over time that influence development (historical events, life transitions)

Parenting Style

Different approaches to raising children, characterized by varying levels of responsiveness and demandingness

Authoritarian Style

Strict, rigid parenting with high demands and low warmth

Authoritative Style

Balanced parenting with high standards and emotional support

Permissive Style

Lenient parenting with few rules and high warmth

Neglectful Style

Uninvolved parenting with minimal emotional support or guidance

Attachment Styles

Patterns of emotional bonding between children and caregivers

Secure Attachment

Healthy bond where child feels safe exploring while maintaining caregiver connection

Insecure Attachment

Problematic bonding patterns resulting from inconsistent caregiving

Avoidant Attachment

Pattern where children minimize emotional expression and avoid seeking comfort

Anxious Attachment

Pattern characterized by excessive dependency and fear of abandonment

Disorganized Attachment

Confused attachment pattern often resulting from trauma or abuse

Temperament

Natural disposition or personality traits present from birth

Separation Anxiety

Distress experienced when separated from primary caregivers

Egocentrism

Inability to see situations from others' perspectives

Imaginary Audience

Adolescent belief that others are constantly observing and evaluating them

Personal Fable

Adolescent belief in their own uniqueness and invulnerability

Theory of Psychosocial Development

Erikson's theory of personality development across the lifespan

Adverse Childhood Experiences

Traumatic events during childhood that can impact development

Achievement

Identity status where one has explored options and made commitments

Diffusion

Identity status characterized by lack of exploration or commitment

Foreclosure

Identity status where commitments are made without exploration

Moratorium

Identity status involving active exploration without firm commitments