Comprehensive Guide to U.S. Political Parties, Elections, and Media

Political parties

Organizations made up of groups of people with similar interests that try to directly influence public policy through their members who seek and hold public office.

Political machines

An organization that secures votes for a party's candidates or supports the party in other ways, usually in exchange for political favors such as a job in government.

Third parties

Political parties formed as an alternative to the Republican and Democratic parties, also known as minor parties.

Duverger's Law

Winner-take-all, single-member district systems naturally push countries toward a two-party system.

Plurality voting

The election rule by which the candidate with the most votes wins, regardless of vote share.

Single member district

A system where one representative is elected from each geographic district, usually with plurality ('first-past-the-post') rules.

Proportional representation

A party-based election rule where the number of seats a party gets matches the share of votes it received.

Party realignment

A shifting of party alliances within the electorate.

Party identification

Individuals who represent themselves in public as being part of a party.

Divided government

A condition in which one or more houses of the legislature is controlled by the party in opposition to the executive.

Party polarization

The shift of party positions from moderate towards the ideological extremes.

Interest group

Organizations made up of people with shared interests that try to influence public policy. They can represent public or private interests.

Inside lobbying

The act of contacting and taking the organization's message directly to lawmakers in an attempt to influence policy.

Outside lobbying

The act of lobbying indirectly by taking the organization's message to the public, often through the use of the media and/or by issue press releases, in hopes that the public will then put pressure on lawmakers.

Public interest group

An interest group that seeks a public good, which is something that accrues to all.

Private interest group

These groups lobby for particularized benefits—stuff that favors a single interest or narrow set of interests, often benefiting wealthier individuals or organizations.

Particularized benefits

A benefit that generally accrues to a narrow segment of society.

Collective goods

A good such as public safety or clean air, often produced by government, that is generally available to the population as a whole.

Collective action

The situation where people share an interest but have a disincentive to act because the benefits happen whether they participate or not. Leads to the free-rider problem.

Free rider problem

The situation that occurs when some individuals receive benefits (get a free ride) without helping to bear the cost.

Material (or 'selective') incentives

Substantive monetary or physical benefits given to group members to help overcome collective action problems.

Disturbance theory

The theory that an external event can lead to interest group mobilization.

Grassroots movement

A political movement that often begins from the bottom up, inspired by average citizens concerned about a given issue.

Astroturf movement

A political movement that resembles a grassroots movement but is often supported or facilitated by wealthy interests and/or elites.

Interest group pluralism

Pluralists believe many groups compete healthily for access to decision-makers, creating balance in policymaking.

Party press era

Period during the 1780s in which newspaper content was biased by political partisanship.

Yellow journalism

Sensationalized coverage of scandals and human interest stories.

Muckraking

News coverage focusing on exposing corrupt business and government practices.

Soft news

News presented in an entertaining style.

Citizen journalism

Video and print news posted to the Internet or social media by citizens rather than the news media.

Slander

Spoken information about a person or organization that is not true and harms the reputation of the person or organization.

Libel

Printed information about a person or organization that is not true and harms the reputation of the person or organization.

Prior restraint

A government action that stops someone from doing something before they are able to do it (e.g., forbidding someone to publish a book they plan to release).

Equal time rule

An FCC policy that all candidates running for office must be given the same radio and television airtime opportunities.

Sunshine laws

Laws that require government documents and proceedings to be made public.

Freedom of Information Act

A federal statute that requires public agencies to provide certain types of information requested by citizens.

Agenda-setting

The media's ability to choose which issues or topics get attention.

Framing

The process of giving a news story a specific context or background.

Priming

The process of predisposing readers or viewers to think a particular way.

Political socialization

The process of learning the norms and practices of a political system through others and societal institutions.

Polarization

A condition where political parties move away from the middle toward ideological extremes, and conflict between them increases.

Diffuse support

The widespread belief that a country and its legal system are legitimate.

Ideology

A person's set of beliefs about government, policy, and society—like a mental map for political preferences.

Liberalism

Liberals tend to support government action to promote equality, more social safety nets, and protections for civil liberties.

Conservatism

Conservatives generally favor limited government, free markets, traditional social values, and stronger emphasis on individual responsibility.

Fascism

A political system of total control by the ruling party or political leader over the economy, the military, society, and culture and often the private lives of citizens.

Socialism

A political and economic system in which government uses its authority to promote social and economic equality, providing everyone with basic services and equal opportunities and requiring citizens with more wealth to contribute more.

Communism

A political and economic system in which, in theory, government promotes common ownership of all property, means of production, and materials to prevent the exploitation of workers while creating an equal society; in practice, most communist governments have used force to maintain control.

Heuristics

Shortcuts or rules of thumb for decision making.

Voter registration

The process states use to determine who is eligible to vote. Requirements vary by state, and some require registration weeks before Election Day.

Residency requirement

The stipulation that citizen must live in a state for a determined period of time before a citizen can register to vote as a resident of that state.

Voter turnout

The percentage of eligible citizens who actually vote. Turnout changes depending on how you measure it (registered voters, VEP, VAP).

Voter ID laws

State rules that require voters to show photo identification before voting. Many states adopted these after the Shelby v. Holder decision.

Incumbent

The current holder of a political office.

Political Action Committee

Organizations created to raise money for political campaigns and spend money to influence policy and politics.

Primary election

An election where party members choose their party's nominee for the general election. Can be open or closed depending on state rules.

Closed primary

An election in which only voters registered with a party may vote for that party's candidates.

Open primary

An election in which any registered voter may vote in any party's primary or caucus.

Top-two primary

A primary election in which the two candidates with the most votes, regardless of party, become the nominees for the general election.

Party convention

State or national gatherings where delegates vote to officially nominate the party's candidate and set the party platform. Delegates come from primaries/caucuses.

Delegates

Party members who are chosen to represent a particular candidate at the party's state- or national-level nominating convention.

Caucus

A form of candidate nomination that occurs in a town-hall style format rather than a day-long election, usually reserved for presidential elections.

Electoral College

The constitutionally created group of individuals, chosen by the states, with the responsibility of formally selecting the next U.S. president.

Straight-ticket voting

The practice of voting only for candidates from the same party.

Ballot fatigue

The result when a voter stops voting for offices and initiatives at the bottom of a long ballot.

Direct democracy

People participate directly in government decisions, instead of relying on elected representatives.