UCSP Term Test

MAJOR THEORETICAL PARADIGMS

a model or framework of a scientific school or discipline within which theories, laws, and generalizations and the experiments performed

**Structural Functionalism**

* in sociology and other social sciences, a school of thought according to which each of the **institutions**, **relationships**, **roles**, and **norms** that together constitute a __society__ serves a **purpose**, and each is **indispensable** for the __continued existence__ of the others and of society as a **whole**.

**Structural Functionalism**

Man is a moral (know what’s right or wrong) being, only because he lives in a society (to know the laws). Let all social life disappear and morality will disappear with it.

**Social change**

is regarded as an __adaptive response__ to some tension within the social system.

__**Emile Durkheim**__

* The origin of contemporary references to social structure can be traced to the French social scientist 
* who argued that parts of society are __interdependent__ and that this interdependency imposes structure on the behavior of institutions and their members.

__**Emile Durkheim**__

* the interrelations between the parts of society contributed to __social unity__—an integrated system with life characteristics of its own, exterior to individuals yet driving their behavior.
* rules are set based on the goals of the people

**MECHANICAL SOLIDARITY**

sentimental attraction of social units or groups that perform the __same__ or similar functions, such as preindustrial self-sufficient farmers

**ORGANIC SOLIDARITY**

interdependence based on __differentiated__ functions and specialization, as seen in a factory, the military, government, or other complex organizations.

__**A.R. Radcliffe-Brown**__

* **a British social anthropologist, gave the concept of social structure a central place in his approach and connected it to the** __**concept of function**__**.** 
* **In his view, the components of the social structure have indispensable functions for one another—the continued existence of the one component is dependent on that of the others—and for society as a whole, which is seen as an integrated organic entity.**
* **culture of society; bigger picture = to make a rule for all; rules are made based on patterns in diff places.**

__**A.R. Radcliffe-Brown**__

* His comparative studies of preliterate societies demonstrated that the **interdependence of institutions** regulated much of social and individual life. 
* defined social structure empirically as patterned, or “normal,” social relations—i.e., those aspects of social activities that conform to accepted social rules or norms.
* These rules bind society’s members to socially **useful activities**.
* looked at past rules → adapt

__**Talcott Parsons**__

* underwent some modification when the American sociologist enunciated the **“functional prerequisites”** that any **social system must meet in order to survive** (required context to set a new rule): 
* developing routinized interpersonal arrangements
* defining relations to the external environment
* fixing boundaries (limitations)
* recruiting and controlling members

**stratification system**

*  selected the most talented and meritorious individuals to meet society’s needs, was seen by some as a conservative ideology that legitimated the **status quo** and thereby __prevented__ social reform.
* It also ignored the potential of the **individual** within society (ruler has all the power; theres a higher voice)

Symbolic Interactionist Theory

is a **micro-level** (lower level) theory that focuses on the relationships among individuals within a society

**Communication**

the exchange of meaning through language and symbols—is believed to be the way in which people **make sense** of their social worlds.

__**Herman and Reynolds**__

note that this perspective sees people as being active in shaping the social world rather than simply being acted upon. (looking at symbols before making rules)

__**George Herbert Mead**__

considered a founder of symbolic interactionism though he never published his work on it.

__**Herbert Blumer**__

coined the term “symbolic interactionism” and outlined **these basic premises**:

* humans interact with things based on **meanings ascribed** to those things;
* the ascribed meaning of things comes from our **interactions** with others and society;

the meanings of things are **interpreted** by a person when dealing with things in **specific circumstances**.

Symbolic Interactionist Theory

* Social scientists who apply symbolic-interactionist thinking look for **patterns of interaction** between individuals. 
* Their studies often involve observation of one-on-one interactions.

 For example, while a conflict theorist studying a political protest might focus on class difference, a symbolic interactionist would be more interested in how individuals in the protesting group __interact__, as well as the **signs** and **symbols** protesters use to __communicate__ their message.

__**Erving Goffman**__

* The focus on the importance of symbols in building a society led this sociologist to develop a technique called __dramaturgical analysis__. 
* Because it can be unclear what part a person may play in a given situation, he or she has to improvise his or her role as the situation unfolds. 

Studies that use the symbolic interactionist perspective are more likely to use __qualitative research methods__, because they seek to understand the symbolic worlds in which research subjects live.

__dramaturgical analysis__

* used theater as an analogy for social interaction and recognized that people’s interactions showed patterns of cultural “scripts.” 

__qualitative__

type of research method that Studies use in the symbolic interactionist perspective

**Conflict Theory**

* looks at society as a **competition for limited resources (food, money, oil)**

__**Karl Marx**__

* This perspective is a **macro-level approach** most identified with the writings of this **German philosopher and sociologist**, who saw society as being made up of individuals in different social classes (rich, poor, average) who must **compete for social, material, and political resources** such as food and housing, employment, education, and leisure time.

__**Ludwig Gumplowicz**__

* Polish-Austrian sociologist 
* expanded on Marx’s ideas by arguing that **war** and **conquest** are the basis of civilizations.
* He believed that cultural and ethnic conflicts led to states being identified and defined by a dominant group that had power over other groups.

__**Max Weber**__

* German sociologist 

agreed with Marx but also believed that, in addition to economic inequalities, inequalities of **political** power and **social structure** cause conflict.

__**Georg Simmel**__

* German sociologist 
* believed that __conflict__ can help **integrate** and **stabilize** a society.
* no problems = no innovation
* He said that the intensity of the conflict varies depending on the emotional involvement of the parties, the degree of solidarity within the opposing groups, and the clarity and limited nature of the goals.
* also showed that groups work to create internal solidarity, centralize power, and reduce dissent.
* Resolving conflicts can reduce tension and hostility and can pave the way for future agreements.

__**Frankfurt School**__

* **German philosophers in the 1930s and 1940s**
* developed critical theory as an elaboration on Marxist principles.

**CRITICAL THEORY**

* an expansion of conflict theory and is broader than just sociology, including other social sciences and philosophy.
* attempts to address **structural issues** causing __inequality__;
* it must explain what’s wrong in current social reality, identify the people who can make changes, and provide practical goals for social transformation

__**Janet Saltzman Chafetz**__

presented a model of **feminist theory** that attempts to explain the forces that maintain gender inequality as well as a theory of how such a system can be changed.

**critical race theory**

grew out of a critical analysis of race and racism from a legal point of view.

SOCIALIZATION

* talking and communicate
* refers to the **lifelong process** of **social interaction** through which people acquire their **identities** and **necessary survival skills** in society.
* It **prepares** new members of society and **trains** them to think, feel, and act in appropriate ways.

is considered the **central process of social life**, and is also a process of **member recruitment** and **replacement**.

SOCIALIZATION

* This process enables a person to gradually become a **self-aware** and **knowledgeable** human being, and learn the ways, values, rules, and culture of his or her society. (communicate = know who you are)
* is also important in **politics**, and a citizen develops and acquires a process which enables the development of citizens to __function effectively__ within a particular political system.

**INTERNALIZATION**

* refers to the process of accepting the social norms, attitudes, roles, and values transmitted by people and social groups within society as one’s own.

**Social Context**

* This refers to the particular __circumstances__ of a society and consists of its culture, language, and the social structures that define social class, ethnicity, and gender.

**Process**

* This refers to the __methods__ of interaction that enable the content to be given to the person undergoing socialization.
* This is considered as a highly interactive process.

**Results**

* This refers to the __outcomes__ of socialization, and are evident when individuals begin to practice the behaviors, attitudes, and values that society considers necessary for them to function effectively as its members.
* successful or not?

ENCULTURATION

* Growing up in any culture, all humans go through the process of enculturation.
* This process is the way in which we **obtain** and **transmit** culture.
* It describes how each individual comes to terms with the already set ideals that their culture has established

**PROSCRIBED**

__prohibited__ behaviors and beliefs,

**PRESCRIBED**

__encouraged__ behaviors and beliefs

Cultural Transmission

* the passing of __new knowledge__ and traditions of culture from one generation to the next, as well as cross-culturally.
* happens everyday, all the time, without any concept of when or where.
* Everything people do and say provides cultural transmission in all aspects of life

**The Family**

* is the __primary agent__ of socialization of an individual upon birth, throughout infancy, and up to childhood.
* are essential for the early __care__ and __development__ of the child, and as the child matures, the family becomes an important venue for social engagement and political socialization

Apart from defining the identity of the individual as a member of society, the family itself as an institution is also defined by the __changes that society undergoes__.

**Schools**

* a **critical and active role in socialization**, as their various academic and social activities mold students’ beliefs, values, and attitudes.
* teach students **important values** like competitiveness, cooperation, conformity, innovation, punctuality, orderliness, and respect for authority.

In addition, students learn the value of __self-improvement__ and __hard work__ through classroom activities and learning tasks which give them opportunities to apply their knowledge and skills.

**Peer Groups**

* also **reinforce acceptable behaviors** introduced by the family and school, allow a certain degree of independence from family and certain figures of authority, and are also means for socialization and involvement in social and political issues.
* refer to people who share the **same interests** or **characteristics** such as age and social background.

for the most part are formed by **informal**, **spontaneous**, and **voluntary** means.

**Mass Media**

* includes forms of communication such as books, magazines, newspapers, other print materials, radio, television, and movies.
* It is a powerful agent of socialization which is widely used by many institutions and organizations involved in the use of **print** and **electronic** communication.

functions as a socializing agent is also __very influential__ to the **political** views, behavior, and attitudes of individuals.

Religion and State

* Both __ __and__ __are considered as the **ultimate sources of authority**, making the church and government important agents of socialization.
* __ exerts a **great influence** on the views of a person, legitimizes accepted social practices, provides stability to society, and can even be a source of social change.
* The __ , meanwhile, participates in socialization through **laws** and other **regulations** that reinforce appropriate behavior, and help form values and attitudes of the citizens.

Major Social and Historical Events

The changes and developments brought about by historical events often cause **transformations** in the values, attitudes, and views that define societies, leading to further changes in the behavior and traditions of societies.

Social Groups

* consists of a number of people who have **common** identity, some feeling of unity, and a certain common goal and shared norms.
* “Social interaction takes place in the context of social groups”

Social organization or institution

* a group of social positions, **connected** by social relations, performing a social role.
* It can be also defined in a narrow sense as any institution in a society that works to socialize the groups or people in it.

__Social Aggregates__

* set of people who are in **one area**
* EXAMPLE: people who are riding in a bus

Social Category

* a set of people who are share **common** characteristics
* EXAMPLE: MET students in TUP

Social Statistics

* is just referring to a **numbered** categorization of individuals
* EXAMPLE: 10 top notcher in Board Exam

**Dyad**

two people; one relationship

**Triad**

three people; three relationships

**A group of four**

six relationships

**A group of five**

ten relationships

PRIMARY

* small in size and characterized by **personal**, **intimate** and **non-specialized** relationships between their members.
* EXAMPLE: Family, basketball team, a pair of lovers, clique

SECONDARY

* **formal**, **impersonal** group in which there is __little__ social intimacy or mutual understanding.
* based on task oriented, impersonal and specialized ties with people, they may be small, but often large.
* not talking most of the time

IN-GROUPS

feel **strong** identification and loyalty with the members of their own groups different, either culturally or racially

OUT-GROUPS

* a group or category to which people feel they **do not** belong

REFERENCE

* uses as a standard in **evaluating** or **understanding** themselves, their attitudes, and their behavior

Formal organization

* **Money** is an important part to these groups, and the organization uses money in fulfilling some objective.

People belong to some type of **formal** organization because of some purpose.

Voluntary

TYPES OF FORMAL ORGANIZATION

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People join of their own **volition** and receive no financial compensation

Coercive

TYPES OF FORMAL ORGANIZATION

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People are **required** to join for either their own benefit or societal good

Utilitarian

TYPES OF FORMAL ORGANIZATION

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People are not forced to join a particular organization but feel **compelled** to join some.

Informal organization

* provide different but important things.
* They can provide **relaxation** and **reduce** stress.
* People can be involved in **fun** activities.
* are what help keep people in __good social health__ and __well being__.