Patho Exam 1

Cells/Tissues, Cardiovascular System, Hematopoietic System

preload

end diastolic pressure when the ventricle has been filled

afterload

work post contraction required to move blood into the aorta

myocardial contractility

the force and velocity with which the heart muscle (myocardium) contracts, measures the heart’s ability to pump blood

pedigree

systematic presentation (such as a table, chart, or list) of an individual’s ancestors that is used in human genetics in the analysis of inheritance

punnett square

grid used in genetics to predict the possible genotypes and phenotypes of offspring from a genetic cross; also called Mendelian square

chromosomes

any one of the structures in the nucleus of a cell containing a linear thread of DNA, which functions in the transmission of genetic information

mitosis

a type of indirect cell division that occurs in somatic cells and results in the formation of two daughter nuclei containing the identical complements of the number of chromosomes characteristic of the somatic cells of the species

meiosis

division of a sex cell as it matures, so that each daughter nucleus receives one half of the number of chromosomes characteristic of the somatic cells of the species

cation

positively charged ion

anion

negatively charged ion

phenotype

observable characteristics resulting from an organism’s genotype

genotype

genetic makeup of an organism

BRCA1/BRCA2

genes associated with increased breast cancer risk

transforming growth factor-B (TGF-B)

a protein that controls cell growth and division

transforming growth factor-A (TGF-A)

a protein involved in cell proliferation

carrier

an individual with one copy of a recessive gene mutation

metabolic acidosis

low blood pH due to low HCO3; caused by diarrhea, renal failure

metabolic alkalosis

high blood pH due to high HCO3; caused by vomiting, NGT suctioning

respiratory acidosis

low blood pH due to high PaCO2 levels; low and slow RR; hypoventilation

respiratory alkalosis

high blood pH due to low PaCO2; fast RR; hyperventilation

types of leukocytes

neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, lymphocytes, monocytes

neutrophils

first cells to arrive at site of infection; defend against invading bacteria, fungi, cell debris, and foreign substances

eosinophils

associated with allergic reactions; defend against allergic reactions, parasitic infections

basophils

involved in allergic and hypersensitivity reactions (coughing, sneezing runny nose)

lymphocytes

main functional cell of immune system; B cells, T cells, NK cells; defend against viral infections and produce proteins (antibodies) to help fight infection

monocytes

defend by engulfing larger and greater quantities of foreign material and dead cells via phagocytosis

total body water

60% in young adult males, 50% in young adult females; decreases with age due to more adipose tissue and less muscle; depends on sex and weight; 2/3 of TBW is found in ICF, 1/3 found in ECF

hypoxia

decreased oxygen in the tissues

hypertonic solution

solution has more solute than inside the cell causing water to move out of the cell and the cell shrinks

hypotonic solution

solution has less solute than inside the cell causing water to move into the cell and the cell swells

isotonic solution

solution has the same concentration of solutes as inside the cell causing cells to neither shrink nor swell

diabetic ketoacidosis treatment

IV fluids, administer insulin, and electrolyte correction

vitamin D role and function

fat soluble vitamin that is essential for the absorption of calcium, nerve function, muscle function, and immune system function.

functions by sustaining normal plasma levels of calcium and phosphorus by increasing their absorption from the intestine

hormone that assists vitamin D

parathyroid hormone (PTH), increases the activation of vitamin D to enhance intestinal absorption of calcium

benign tumor

well differentiated cells resembling cells in the tissue of origin, progressive and slow rate of growth, expansive growth, no metastasis

malignant tumor

undifferentiated cells bearing little resemblance to the cells in the tissue of origin, more undifferentiated means more rapid rate of growth, invasive growth, metastasize to other areas of body

main treatment for adult cancer

radiation, surgery, chemotherapy, hormonal therapy, biotherapy

main treatment for pediatric cancer

chemotherapy, surgery, radiation, biotherapy

chromosome

structure that organizes, stores, and retrieves genetic information that tells our bodies how to grow, develop and function and tells our cells how to grow, divide, repair, and respond to the environment

G0 phase

maintenance phase, cell may remain in state of inactivity or reenter the cell cycle

G1 phase

prepare for mitosis by producing new organelles and increasing protein supply

S phase

synthesis phase when DNA replication occurs

G2 phase

cell growth continues

M phase

division of nucleus and overall cell division

causes of cellular injury

Toxic (endogenous or exogenous factors like genetic conditions or alcohol); Infectious (viral, bacterial, etc agents); Physical (thermal like electrical or radiation OR mechanical like trauma or surgery); Deficit (lack of water, oxygen, nutrients)

apoptosis

programmed cell death

atrophy

decrease in the size of a cell. caused by disuse, insufficient blood flow, malnutrition

hypertrophy

increase in the size of cells. caused by demands of increased workload

hyperplasia

increase in the number of cells. caused by increased workload and hormonal stimulation

metaplasia

replacement of 1 adult cell with another adult cell that can better endure the change or stress. caused by chronic inflammation

dysplasia

deranged cell growth with abnormal size, shape and appearance. caused by viruses and genetic disorders

cell function and major components

smallest functional unit necessary for life, combine to form tissues, major components are nucleus, cytoplasm, and cell membrane

cell membrane

controls what enters/exits the cell, semi-permeable phospholipid bilayer with hydrophilic heads facing outward and hydrophobic tails facing inward

nucleus

control center, contains DNA

mitochondria

powerhouse, makes energy in form of ATP for cellular activities

ribosomes

synthesizes protein

messenger RNA

transcription of DNA for protein synthesis

ribosomal RNA

site of protein production

transfer RNA

transports amino acids to the site of protein synthesis

endoplasmic reticulum

conveyor belt; transports proteins. rough ER has ribosomes attached, smooth ER doesn’t

golgi apparatus

post office, packages proteins into forms that the cell can use

lysosome

garbage man, breakdown waste and cellular debris

proteasome

garbage disposal system for damaged proteins

autocrine signaling

occurs when a cell releases a chemical into the extracellular fluid that affects its own activity

paracrine signaling

occurs when a cell releases a chemical into the extracellular fluid that acts mainly on nearby cells

endocrine signaling

relies on hormones carried in the bloodstream to cells throughout the body

synaptic signaling

occurs in the nervous system, where neurotransmitters are released from neurons to act only on neighboring cells at synapses

continuous tight or occluding junctions

bind neighboring cells together to prevent materials from passing between cells (ziplock seal); found only in epithelial cells

adhering junctions

strong adhesion between neighboring cells to prevent cells from separating from each other (snap button); found in epithelial tissue and between cardiac muscle cells

gap junctions

sites of strong adhesion between neighboring cells with channels that linke the cytoplasm of the two neighboring cells (like a tunnel), electrical connector; found in epithelial tissue and others

g-protein-linked receptor

cell surface receptors that allow cells to respond to signals from outside and convert to internal signals, like a doorbell

enzyme-linked receptor

cell surface receptors that trigger enzyme activity inside the cell when a signal (like a hormone or growth factor) binds to them; like a light switch

ion channel-linked receptors

rapid signaling between electrically excitable cells such as neurons and muscle cells; like automatic doors

intracellular receptors

Signals that do not bind to cell surface receptors but move across the cell membrane and bind to intracellular receptors and influence DNA activity

ligand

chemicals that bind to protein receptors

first messenger

extracellular (external) chemical signals, binds to receptor on the cell membrane

second messenger

intracellular (internal) molecule that gets activated after the first messenger binds to the receptor

epithelial tissue

cover the body’s outer surface, line the internal closed cavities, and form secretory portion of glands and their ducts

simple epithelium

single layer of cells that all rest on the basement membrane, adapted for filtration (found in the blood vessels)

stratified epithelium

multilayered cells with only the deepest layer resting on the basement membrane, designed to protect body surfaces

pseudostratified epithelium

single layer but appears multilayered because all the cells are in contact with the basement membrane but some do not extend to the surface

squamous

flat cells

columnar

tall, cylindrical cells

cuboidal

cube-shaped cells

muscle tissue

contracts to move the body and its parts; thin actin filaments and thick myosin filaments aid in contraction

skeletal muscle

contractions move the skeleton voluntarily, striated (striped appearance due to large fibers)

cardiac muscle

striated, involuntary, main part of the heart

smooth muscle

not striated, involuntary, stimulated by the autonomic nervous system, found on the wall lining of internal structures and organs

connective tissue

protects, supports, and binds together different body parts; loose (fat/adipose) and dense (bone, cartilage, dermis)

nervous tissue

communicate reactions to various physical/chemical agents and transmission from one point to another, neurons and neuroglia

primary prevention

keeping disease from occurring by removing risk factors. ex: folic acid for pregnant women, immunizations

secondary prevention

detect disease when it is still asymptomatic and treatment measures can cure/stop the disease from progressing. examples: pap smear, colonoscopy, BP measurements

tertiary prevention

clinical interventions that prevent further deterioration or reduce the complications of a disease that is already present. example: AA, beta blockers for those who have had a heart attack

signs

Describe the structural and functional changes that accompany a disease, manifestation that is noted by an observer

symptoms

Describe the structural and functional changes that accompany a disease, subjective complaint that is noted by the person with a disorder

disease

Acute or chronic illness that one acquires or is born with that causes physiologic dysfunction in one or more body systems

objective

Signs that can be observed by someone other than the person with the disease

subjective

Symptoms that are noted by the person with the disorder

diagnostic assessment

identifies the presence or cause of a condition

prognostic assessment

predicts the likely course or outcome of a disease or condition