Environmental Conservation Exam 2

Tropical wet forest

rainfall is abundant, temperatures are warm to hot year-round, soil is thin, acidic, and nutrient poor

Tropical wet forest species

Millions of insect species and terrestrial plants

Tropical wet forests nutrient cycle

90% of nutrients contained in living organisms, depends on rapid decomposition and recycling of dead material

Tropical seasonal forest

Drought-tolerant that are dry and brown most of year, periodic rain supports plant growth and vivid green; open woodlands

Why do humans like tropical seasonal forests the best?

easy to clear with fires, fewer insects and fungi, higher nutrient levels for agriculture

Tropical savanna

open grasslands with little tree cover, less abundant rain; fires often clear new trees

Tropical savanna plants

adapted to drought, fire, and heat, have deep roots that suck groundwater even when plant above ground dies, fresh shoots grow quickly after drought

Tropical savanna animals

Migratory grazers thrive on new growth, domestic livestock grazing is a threat to plants and wild animals

Desert

rainfall is sporadic and low, vulnerable to overgrazing, vegetation is diverse

Desert plants

Adaptation includes water storing leaves, thick epidermal layers to reduce water loss, salt tolerance, drought deciduous, and setting seed quickly where rain does fall

Desert animals

nocturnal and burrowing to avoid sun, receive most of moisture from seeds and plants

Why are deserts vulnerable?

slow-growing vegetation is damaged by off-road vehicles, soil recovers slowly, grazing results in bare soil that drifts and cannot retain any rainfall

Temperate grassland

Enough rain to support abundant grass but not forest, diverse mix of grass and forbs, vegetation height varies

Temperate grassland plants

Deep roots and dead leaves from the winter produce thick, organic-rich soils

Dangers to temperate grasslands

Almost all are converted to farmland, remaining are too dry to support growth, overgrazing kills deep-rooted plants leading to soil erosion and unpalatable weeds

Temperate scrubland

Dry environment with drought-adapted shrub, trees, and grass, hot-spot for biodiversity, Mediterranean where hot season coincides with dry season for dry summers and moist winters

Temperate scrubland species

Evergreen shrubs, scrub oaks, drought-resistant pines, fires burn often and are important in plant succession, drought-tolerant animals

Problems with temperate scrubland

highly desired for human habitation which results in conflicts with rare and endangered plant/animal species

Temperate forest

Large range of precipitation conditions, grouped by tree type deciduous and coniferous

Deciduous

broad-leafed forests where rainfall is plentiful, lose leaves in winter, can regrow quickly when damaged

Coniferous

Often occur where moisture is limited like cold climates or hot climates, thin waxy leaves help trees hold moisture

Boreal forest

Moderate precipitation but mostly moist due to cold temperatures, dominated by coniferous trees, slow growing, expansive resource

Why are the boreal forests expansive resources?

Favorite places for hunting, fishing, and recreation, extractive resource use, houses unique species (ex. lynx)

Tundra

Treeless landscape in high latitudes or mountaintops, temps below freezing, growing season lasts 2-3 months, conditions prevent decomposition resulting in permafrost

Artic tundra

Essential for global diversity like birds, low productivity except for midsummer 24hour sunshine supporting plant growth and insect life

Alpine tundra

on or near mountaintops, everything must flower at once to produce seeds before next snow, intense growing season

Problems in tundra

Low diversity, animals migrate out quickly, air pollution and global climate change is altering ecosystem

Biomes

Areas with similar communities because latitude and topography influence predictable temperature and precipitation seasonal patterns that also drive patterns in plant and animal adaptions

Influences of aquatic life zones

water chemistry, depth (light), currents, seasonal temperatures

Pelagic zones

The water column, open ocean, outside of costal areas

Pelagic zones in order

Epipelagic (top), mesopelagic and bathypelagic zones, abyssal, hadal zones

Tidal shores

Vary with depth, light, temperature, biological production, and diversity

Coral reefs

High in biological productivity/diversity, occur in shallow and clear water where sunlight can hit photosynthetic algae that is protected by calcium-rich coral skeletons

Why are reefs endangered?

Sediment from coastal development, farming, sewage, pollution smother coral and reduce water clarity blocking sunlight, destructive fishing like dynamite and cyanide, changes in temps, invasive fish and diseases

Coral bleaching

whitening of reefs due to stress followed by coral death

Sea-grass beds

Occupy shallow, warm, sandy coastlines that support rich/diverse communities and vulnerable to warming

Mangroves

Diverse group of salt-tolerant trees growing along warm, calm marine coasts

Benefits of mangroves

Stabilize shorelines, blunt force of storms, trap sediment and organic material, leaves provide nutrients for animal and plants, marine and terrestrial species rely on it

Leading cause of mangrove destruction

Clearing for coastal shrimp or fish farms, timber production, municipal sewage, industrial waste

Lakes

Less extensive than marine but are centers for biodiversity, terrestrial communities rely on them

Wetlands

Shallow ecosystems in which land surface is submerged for part of year, half have been drained and degraded in U.S.

Benefits of wetlands

Replenish groundwater, filter and purify farm runoff, retain storm water and reduce flooding

Marshes

Wetlands without trees, favors photosynthetic activity with shallow waters for sunlight, abundant and varied life

Bogs

Areas of rain water-saturated ground composed of deep layers of accumulated undecayed vegetation (peat), poor nutrients with low productivity, rare species

Fens

Areas of groundwater saturated ground with mineral rich water and high productivity

Streams

Formed whenever surplus water drains from the land, materials are moved downward from currents but offset by active animals, productivity, and input of materials from adjacent wetlands

Rivers

When streams collect and merge, continuum of constantly changing environmental conditions and community inhabitants from headwaters to mouth of drainage

HIPPO/C

Habitat destruction, Invasive species, Pollution, Population growth, Overharvesting, Climate change

Endangered Species Act (ESA)

Provides criteria for identifying species at risk, directions for planning for their recovery, assistance to landowners to find ways to meet needs of both species and economy, enforcement of measures for protecting species and habitat

ESA identifies

Endangered species considered to be in imminent danger of extinction, Threatened species likely to become endangered, and Vulnerable species that are rare or depleted by humans to the point of risk

International cooperation

FWS and international corps. devised management strategies to conserve certain amounts of damaged tree strands while harvesting other areas

CITIES

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species

Gap analysis

Survey for landcover types, goal is to identify types with lower land protection, connections between landcover types

What biomes are most affected by humans?

Forests and grasslands

Savannas and scrubland

Included in definition of forests, trees only cover 10-20% of area/ smaller trees

Closed-canopy forests

Tree crowns cover most of ground

Old growth

Forests that are free of industrial disturbance so trees can live out normal life cycle, human interaction isn’t fully absent

Indonesian palm oil

Demand for palm oil leading to greatest destruction of palm oil forests for plantations, wood products, and industrial growth, endangering orangutans

Monoculture forestry

Reforestation is in large plantations of single-species, single-use, or intensive cropping and has little biodiversity

Forest services

products, subsistence, biodiversity, climate stabilization

Causes of loss in forests

Logging for valuable hardwoods, building roads to remove logs which allows entry by farmers, hunters, and miners causing more damage, displacing indigenous tribes

Ecosystem management

• manage across whole landscapes

• depend on scientifically credible data

• consider human needs and economic development

• maintain bio div and ecosystem processes

• utilize cooperative institutional arrangements

• generate stakeholder and public involve. to facilitate collective decision making

• adapt management over time based on monitoring

Clear-cutting

Every tree in given area is cut, regardless of size

Shelterwood harvesting

Mature trees are removed in series of 2 or more cuts

Strip-cutting

All trees in narrow corridor are harvested

Selective cutting

Less destructive, small percentage of mature trees are taken in 10 or 20 year rotation

Special roles of forest fires

Many ecosystems are adapted to fire and require periodic burning for regeneration

Consequences of forest fire suppression

Woody debris has accumulated increasing likelihood of a big fire, fire season has doubled in length with higher severity

Uses for grasslands

Croplands, livestock grazing, urban development

Desertification

Overgrazing results in less humidity, less water, and loss of biodiversity and plants

Overgrazing

Damage to vegetation and soil including loss of native forage species and erosion from animals

Rotational grazing

Confining animals to a small area before shifting them to a new location encourages growth of desirable species

Controlled burns

Ecologists favor small, prescribed burns to decrease likelihood of larger fire

Alternative animals

Wild species forage more efficiently, tolerate harsh climates, more pest and disease-resistant, fend off predators better

Parks and Preserves land coverage

22% of U.S. land in protected status, national parks and wildlife management zones

Parks and preserves degrees of protection

1) Stringent has few human impacts allowed, ecological reserves and wilderness areas, 2) least restrictive allow impact, national forests

Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation (REDD)

Transfers funds from developed countries to countries to stop deforestation, alternative ways to develop and creating new jobs, education and institutions to protect land

UN FAO

Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations, leads efforts to defeat hunger and improve nutrition/food security

Smokey Bear

Forest mascot warning people that “only you can prevent forest fires”

United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)

Encourages collaborations among nations through education, science, and culture

Man and Biosphere (MAB) program

Encourages the designation of biosphere reserves, protected areas divided into zones with different purposes

International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)

Governments and civil society organizations, global authority on status of natural world and measures to protect it

Despite increased global food production, what is still present?

Hunger and malnutrition

Population since 1960 up almost 3x and malnourishment rates at their lowest, however

Billion people face chronic hunger, food insecurity impacts weak, lowers productivity, contributes to poverty

What is the percentage of hunger in developing countries?

95%

How many children die of diseases caused by hunger?

6 million/ 60% of child deaths

Kwashiorkor

Lack of protein with bloated belly and discolored hair/skin

Marasmus

Protein and calorie deficient child who is thin and shriveled

Vitamin A deficiency

Causes blindness in 350,000 people a year and childhood premature death

Goiter

Caused by iodine deficiencies essential for regulating metabolism and brain development, swelling of thyroid

Folate deficiency

Neurological problems in babies (folic acid?)

Golden rice

Genetic engineering to add vitamin K into common foods in effort to deliver nutrients, thought to be too expensive and herbicides used kill the greens villagers rely on

What has promoted overnutrition and obesity?

Inexpensive calories and processed food industry

Famines

Initiated by natural events but perpetuated and exacerbated by politics and war

How does war and politics initiate famine?

Displaced people can’t feed themselves

How can economic forces affect availability of food?

Distribution inefficiencies, biofuels, food waste

What does increasing wealth favor?

Meat consumption, commodity crops (corn, rice, soy, wheat)C

Confined Animal Feeding Operation (CAFO)

Animals are fed (soy and corn) and housed for rapid growth, quicker, and produces more muscle that fat

Production of fish and seafood

Mainly caught by huge nets that sweep area of ocean clean in hours, catching unwanted and by-catch species

Health consequences from changing diets

Overuse of antibiotics in livestock/humans rendering them ineffective for human health-care, thousands die from antibiotic-resistant infections