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Tropical wet forest
rainfall is abundant, temperatures are warm to hot year-round, soil is thin, acidic, and nutrient poor
Tropical wet forest species
Millions of insect species and terrestrial plants
Tropical wet forests nutrient cycle
90% of nutrients contained in living organisms, depends on rapid decomposition and recycling of dead material
Tropical seasonal forest
Drought-tolerant that are dry and brown most of year, periodic rain supports plant growth and vivid green; open woodlands
Why do humans like tropical seasonal forests the best?
easy to clear with fires, fewer insects and fungi, higher nutrient levels for agriculture
Tropical savanna
open grasslands with little tree cover, less abundant rain; fires often clear new trees
Tropical savanna plants
adapted to drought, fire, and heat, have deep roots that suck groundwater even when plant above ground dies, fresh shoots grow quickly after drought
Tropical savanna animals
Migratory grazers thrive on new growth, domestic livestock grazing is a threat to plants and wild animals
Desert
rainfall is sporadic and low, vulnerable to overgrazing, vegetation is diverse
Desert plants
Adaptation includes water storing leaves, thick epidermal layers to reduce water loss, salt tolerance, drought deciduous, and setting seed quickly where rain does fall
Desert animals
nocturnal and burrowing to avoid sun, receive most of moisture from seeds and plants
Why are deserts vulnerable?
slow-growing vegetation is damaged by off-road vehicles, soil recovers slowly, grazing results in bare soil that drifts and cannot retain any rainfall
Temperate grassland
Enough rain to support abundant grass but not forest, diverse mix of grass and forbs, vegetation height varies
Temperate grassland plants
Deep roots and dead leaves from the winter produce thick, organic-rich soils
Dangers to temperate grasslands
Almost all are converted to farmland, remaining are too dry to support growth, overgrazing kills deep-rooted plants leading to soil erosion and unpalatable weeds
Temperate scrubland
Dry environment with drought-adapted shrub, trees, and grass, hot-spot for biodiversity, Mediterranean where hot season coincides with dry season for dry summers and moist winters
Temperate scrubland species
Evergreen shrubs, scrub oaks, drought-resistant pines, fires burn often and are important in plant succession, drought-tolerant animals
Problems with temperate scrubland
highly desired for human habitation which results in conflicts with rare and endangered plant/animal species
Temperate forest
Large range of precipitation conditions, grouped by tree type deciduous and coniferous
Deciduous
broad-leafed forests where rainfall is plentiful, lose leaves in winter, can regrow quickly when damaged
Coniferous
Often occur where moisture is limited like cold climates or hot climates, thin waxy leaves help trees hold moisture
Boreal forest
Moderate precipitation but mostly moist due to cold temperatures, dominated by coniferous trees, slow growing, expansive resource
Why are the boreal forests expansive resources?
Favorite places for hunting, fishing, and recreation, extractive resource use, houses unique species (ex. lynx)
Tundra
Treeless landscape in high latitudes or mountaintops, temps below freezing, growing season lasts 2-3 months, conditions prevent decomposition resulting in permafrost
Artic tundra
Essential for global diversity like birds, low productivity except for midsummer 24hour sunshine supporting plant growth and insect life
Alpine tundra
on or near mountaintops, everything must flower at once to produce seeds before next snow, intense growing season
Problems in tundra
Low diversity, animals migrate out quickly, air pollution and global climate change is altering ecosystem
Biomes
Areas with similar communities because latitude and topography influence predictable temperature and precipitation seasonal patterns that also drive patterns in plant and animal adaptions
Influences of aquatic life zones
water chemistry, depth (light), currents, seasonal temperatures
Pelagic zones
The water column, open ocean, outside of costal areas
Pelagic zones in order
Epipelagic (top), mesopelagic and bathypelagic zones, abyssal, hadal zones
Tidal shores
Vary with depth, light, temperature, biological production, and diversity
Coral reefs
High in biological productivity/diversity, occur in shallow and clear water where sunlight can hit photosynthetic algae that is protected by calcium-rich coral skeletons
Why are reefs endangered?
Sediment from coastal development, farming, sewage, pollution smother coral and reduce water clarity blocking sunlight, destructive fishing like dynamite and cyanide, changes in temps, invasive fish and diseases
Coral bleaching
whitening of reefs due to stress followed by coral death
Sea-grass beds
Occupy shallow, warm, sandy coastlines that support rich/diverse communities and vulnerable to warming
Mangroves
Diverse group of salt-tolerant trees growing along warm, calm marine coasts
Benefits of mangroves
Stabilize shorelines, blunt force of storms, trap sediment and organic material, leaves provide nutrients for animal and plants, marine and terrestrial species rely on it
Leading cause of mangrove destruction
Clearing for coastal shrimp or fish farms, timber production, municipal sewage, industrial waste
Lakes
Less extensive than marine but are centers for biodiversity, terrestrial communities rely on them
Wetlands
Shallow ecosystems in which land surface is submerged for part of year, half have been drained and degraded in U.S.
Benefits of wetlands
Replenish groundwater, filter and purify farm runoff, retain storm water and reduce flooding
Marshes
Wetlands without trees, favors photosynthetic activity with shallow waters for sunlight, abundant and varied life
Bogs
Areas of rain water-saturated ground composed of deep layers of accumulated undecayed vegetation (peat), poor nutrients with low productivity, rare species
Fens
Areas of groundwater saturated ground with mineral rich water and high productivity
Streams
Formed whenever surplus water drains from the land, materials are moved downward from currents but offset by active animals, productivity, and input of materials from adjacent wetlands
Rivers
When streams collect and merge, continuum of constantly changing environmental conditions and community inhabitants from headwaters to mouth of drainage
HIPPO/C
Habitat destruction, Invasive species, Pollution, Population growth, Overharvesting, Climate change
Endangered Species Act (ESA)
Provides criteria for identifying species at risk, directions for planning for their recovery, assistance to landowners to find ways to meet needs of both species and economy, enforcement of measures for protecting species and habitat
ESA identifies
Endangered species considered to be in imminent danger of extinction, Threatened species likely to become endangered, and Vulnerable species that are rare or depleted by humans to the point of risk
International cooperation
FWS and international corps. devised management strategies to conserve certain amounts of damaged tree strands while harvesting other areas
CITIES
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
Gap analysis
Survey for landcover types, goal is to identify types with lower land protection, connections between landcover types
What biomes are most affected by humans?
Forests and grasslands
Savannas and scrubland
Included in definition of forests, trees only cover 10-20% of area/ smaller trees
Closed-canopy forests
Tree crowns cover most of ground
Old growth
Forests that are free of industrial disturbance so trees can live out normal life cycle, human interaction isn’t fully absent
Indonesian palm oil
Demand for palm oil leading to greatest destruction of palm oil forests for plantations, wood products, and industrial growth, endangering orangutans
Monoculture forestry
Reforestation is in large plantations of single-species, single-use, or intensive cropping and has little biodiversity
Forest services
products, subsistence, biodiversity, climate stabilization
Causes of loss in forests
Logging for valuable hardwoods, building roads to remove logs which allows entry by farmers, hunters, and miners causing more damage, displacing indigenous tribes
Ecosystem management
manage across whole landscapes
depend on scientifically credible data
consider human needs and economic development
maintain bio div and ecosystem processes
utilize cooperative institutional arrangements
generate stakeholder and public involve. to facilitate collective decision making
adapt management over time based on monitoring
Clear-cutting
Every tree in given area is cut, regardless of size
Shelterwood harvesting
Mature trees are removed in series of 2 or more cuts
Strip-cutting
All trees in narrow corridor are harvested
Selective cutting
Less destructive, small percentage of mature trees are taken in 10 or 20 year rotation
Special roles of forest fires
Many ecosystems are adapted to fire and require periodic burning for regeneration
Consequences of forest fire suppression
Woody debris has accumulated increasing likelihood of a big fire, fire season has doubled in length with higher severity
Uses for grasslands
Croplands, livestock grazing, urban development
Desertification
Overgrazing results in less humidity, less water, and loss of biodiversity and plants
Overgrazing
Damage to vegetation and soil including loss of native forage species and erosion from animals
Rotational grazing
Confining animals to a small area before shifting them to a new location encourages growth of desirable species
Controlled burns
Ecologists favor small, prescribed burns to decrease likelihood of larger fire
Alternative animals
Wild species forage more efficiently, tolerate harsh climates, more pest and disease-resistant, fend off predators better
Parks and Preserves land coverage
22% of U.S. land in protected status, national parks and wildlife management zones
Parks and preserves degrees of protection
1) Stringent has few human impacts allowed, ecological reserves and wilderness areas, 2) least restrictive allow impact, national forests
Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation (REDD)
Transfers funds from developed countries to countries to stop deforestation, alternative ways to develop and creating new jobs, education and institutions to protect land
UN FAO
Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations, leads efforts to defeat hunger and improve nutrition/food security
Smokey Bear
Forest mascot warning people that “only you can prevent forest fires”
United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
Encourages collaborations among nations through education, science, and culture
Man and Biosphere (MAB) program
Encourages the designation of biosphere reserves, protected areas divided into zones with different purposes
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
Governments and civil society organizations, global authority on status of natural world and measures to protect it
Despite increased global food production, what is still present?
Hunger and malnutrition
Population since 1960 up almost 3x and malnourishment rates at their lowest, however
Billion people face chronic hunger, food insecurity impacts weak, lowers productivity, contributes to poverty
What is the percentage of hunger in developing countries?
95%
How many children die of diseases caused by hunger?
6 million/ 60% of child deaths
Kwashiorkor
Lack of protein with bloated belly and discolored hair/skin
Marasmus
Protein and calorie deficient child who is thin and shriveled
Vitamin A deficiency
Causes blindness in 350,000 people a year and childhood premature death
Goiter
Caused by iodine deficiencies essential for regulating metabolism and brain development, swelling of thyroid
Folate deficiency
Neurological problems in babies (folic acid?)
Golden rice
Genetic engineering to add vitamin K into common foods in effort to deliver nutrients, thought to be too expensive and herbicides used kill the greens villagers rely on
What has promoted overnutrition and obesity?
Inexpensive calories and processed food industry
Famines
Initiated by natural events but perpetuated and exacerbated by politics and war
How does war and politics initiate famine?
Displaced people can’t feed themselves
How can economic forces affect availability of food?
Distribution inefficiencies, biofuels, food waste
What does increasing wealth favor?
Meat consumption, commodity crops (corn, rice, soy, wheat)C
Confined Animal Feeding Operation (CAFO)
Animals are fed (soy and corn) and housed for rapid growth, quicker, and produces more muscle that fat
Production of fish and seafood
Mainly caught by huge nets that sweep area of ocean clean in hours, catching unwanted and by-catch species
Health consequences from changing diets
Overuse of antibiotics in livestock/humans rendering them ineffective for human health-care, thousands die from antibiotic-resistant infections