658 midterm

development

lifespan development

the field of study that examines patterns of growth, change, and stability in behavior that occur through the entire lifespan

areas of development

physical: body, brain, motor, skills, examining the ways ins hick the body makes helps determine behavior 
- how athletes physcal perforamnce declines as they age

cognitive: thinking, learning, memory. how growth and change in intellectual capabilities influence a persons behvaior. learning. memory, problem solving skills and intelligence. 
- how problem solving skills change over a life time

personality: enduring traits. stability and change in the enduring characterisitics that differentiate one person form another over the lifespan. 

social: relationships and interactions. w/ others and their social relationships eveolve. change. remain stable throughout life. - how racism and poverty impacts social devel

continuous development

gradual. achievements at one level BUILD on those of the previous. quantitative. smooth slope. i.e. height. or learning to walk after crawling and standing

discontinuous 

distinct. sudden stages or steps. qualitative. more like stairs? Piaget stages. 

cohort

a group of people born at around the same time in the same place

history graded

bio and environmental influences associated with historical moment (9/11, covid) 

age graded

bio/envi influences that are similar for people of a certain AGE GROUP regardless of when/where they are raised. predictable timing and duration (puberty, menopause, starting school western)soci

sociocultural graded

social/cultural factors present. depend on race, ethnicity, social class, and subcultural membership (being raised in remote africa v nyc)

non normative

unique life events. atypical that happen in a person life at a time when they usually don’t. (loss of a parent)

prenatal

conception— birth. major structures of the body form

infancy/ toddlerhood

0-3. rapid physical growth, language, and cognitive skill emerge

early childhood

3-6. refinement of aforementioned skills and increasing independence. social skills thru plau

middle childhood

6-12. academic skills and self worth emerge. school and sports are prominent. puberty begins at END of this stage.

adolescence

12-20. puberty in full swing. large transition from childhood to adulthood. abstract thinking and identity

emerging adulthood

20s. me. continued identity exploration. not a full adult 

adulthood

20-65. longest period with major milestones. graduation. marriage. buying a home. career. having a family

late adulthood

65+. physical, cognitive and social changes associated with aging. retirement and reflection on life

freud 

psychosexual stages. unconscious motives. psychoanalytic perspective. conflicts between biological and social expectations. can lead to "fixations" that influence adult personality and behavior. 

• Oral - birth-18 mos. Eating, sucking. If stuck often results in oral fixations later in life (smoking)

• Anal – 18 mos-3 yrs. Expelling and witholding feces (toilet training). Anal retentive or anal expulsive later. 

• Phallic– 3-6 yrs - identification w same sex parent. Oedipus complex  

• Latency- 6 yrs - adolescence. Sexual concerns are unimportant 

  • Genital – adolescence. Sexual interests and establishing relationships. 

Erikson

Psychosocial Theory (social/emotional conflicts). Goes more into adulthood. Devel of cultraully relevant attitudes and skills into 8 stages. Distinct crises to solve and to develop the self. 

• *Trust v Mistrust: below

• *Autonomy v Shame/Doubt: below 

• *Initiative v Guilt: below 

• Industry v Inferiority: 

• Identity v role confusion: 

• Intimacy v Isolation: 

• Generativity v Stagnation:

• Ego Integrity v Despair: 

piaget

• Cognitive Development stages. Children construct knowledge through development. 

  • Sensorimotor (birth - 2 yrs): acting on the world through using their senses

  • Preoperational (2-7 yrs): symbols, play, make believe, language is developed 

  • Concrete Operational (7-11 yrs): reasoning becomes more logical and organized

  • Formal Operational (11 yrs and beyond): abstract, systematic thinking. Problem solving 

social cognitive learning theory 

•  modeling, imitation (Bandura). Learning by observing behavior of another person. 

  • 4 step process. Learned through observation. 

  • 1. Pay attention to models behavior, 2 observer recall behavior, 3 observer reproduce behavior, 4 observer motivated to learn and carry out behavior 

behaviorism

• learning through reinforcement/punishment (Watson, Skinner, pavlov)

  • Classical Conditioning: response to a particular stimulus that did not bring about a reaction before 

  • Operant Conditioning: positive or negative reinforcements and punishments to get a certain beahvior to stop or continue 

humanistic theory

self-actualization (Rogers, Maslow). People have a natural tendency to make decisions about their lives and control their behavior. Free will.

informational processing

• how information is encoded, stored, used. Computer like. 

developmental neuroscience

brain and nervous system influences. brain scans. CAT scan ie.

evolutionary developmental psychology 

• adaptive behaviors over time

  • Behavior that is a result of our genetic inheritance from our ancestors

  • Charles darwin. Natural selection 

vygotsky sociocultural theory

learning through interaction of members of cultures.

Bioecological Model

•  Bronfenbrenner’s systems (micro to macro). How the environment shapes behavior and cognition. 

cognitive development  theory 

• how thought processes change. 

piagets stages

resilience and protective factors

• ability to recover from adversity; protective factors support this. Ability to adapt effectively after a threat across one’s lifespan. Personal characteristics (intelligence, social, easy going) warm parental relationship. Social support. Community and opportunities. 

germinal

1. (fertilization–2 weeks) : first, shortest. Takes place during first two weeks following conception. Zygote begins to divide and grow in complexity. Fertilized egg goes to uterus, and implants in wall. Cell division. Specialized cells. Sensitive period. 

embryonic

1.  (2–8 weeks): embryo now. Devel of major organs and basic anatomy. THE MOST SENSITIVE. Teratogens can impact severely. Head and brain undergo lots of devel 

   1. 3 layers begin. 

      1. Ectoderm – outermost layer. Skin, hair, teeth, brain, spinal cord

      2. Mesoderm– muscles, bones, blood, and circulatory system 

Endoderm– inner layer. digestive system, liver, pancreas, respiratory system

fetal

1. (8 weeks–birth) : actually looks like a baby. Called a fetus. Length increase, proportions change. Weight increase. Organs being to work. The baby starts to move around 4mos. The brain hemispheres grow. Neurons become complex. Brain waves. Can hear. Hormones. Sex can be determined 

Teratogens

• harmful environmental agents that affect prenatal development/birth defect; drug, chemicals, viruses, radiation, pollution etc. impact of it varies→ how much and how long? 

  • Timing and sensitive periods play a role. The placenta tries to keep teratogens out. 

  • Often a premie baby or low birth weight

maternal factors 

•  Age- having a higher age means a higher risk pregnancy (35+). The eggs age (autism, down syndrome). Even teen pregancy means having a premie baby.  

•  Health– eat right. Healthy weight. Illness can impact the pregnancy and defects may occur (a mother getting rubella). STIs or other illnesses (AIDS) can be transmitted. Exercise. 

• Nutrition– get lots of nutrients and folic acid. Take supplements. May lead to low birth weight or other future issues if not getting the proper food. 

•  Stress– poverty, SES, being a black or hispanic mother poses stress. Lots of adversities. Need social support.  

pregnancy problems

• Miscarriage– spontaneous abortion.15-20% of pregnancies. Happens when preg ends before the developing child is able to survive outside the moms womb. Embryo detaches from wall and is expelled. Usually in the first months of pregnancy. Usually from a genetic abnormality. 

preterm/ low birth weight babies

• complications and care needs

  •  preterm birth– born before 38 weeks. Risk of illness and death bc they didnt get full time to develop. Dangers depend on the weight. Death. Respiratory issues, sensitive, 

  • Very low birth weight– been in the womb less than 30 wks. dangerous. More physical and cognitive issues for preterm and low birth weight babies. Super expensive. 

  • May be at more risk to be held less from parents or face abuse

  • Why does it happen?

    • Multiples. Issues of moms reproductive system. Fathers age. General health of mother (stress, level of medical care, nutrition). Drugs, alc, smoking, DV, workig a lot. Etc. 

newborn reflexes

• unlearned, organized, involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of stimuli. Survival value. Gratification. Helps for development of complex motor skills 
  
  

  • Rooting– turning head in the direction of stimulation. Mouth going toward nipple

  •  Sucking– ingest food. Suck at things that touch its lips. Soothing 

  •  Grasping– fingers close around an object placed in its hands. May provide support 

  •  Moro – activated when support for the neck and head is suddenly removed. The Moro reflex consists of the infant’s arms thrusting outward and then appearing to seek to grasp onto something. May help if falling. 

  •  Babinski- fans out its toes in response to a stroke on the outside of its foot. Unknown why we have it 

5 stages of infant arousal

• the degree of awareness it displays to both internal and external stimulation. Sleep and wakefulness range from deep sleep to great agitation. 

Spend lots of time in REM; good for brain devel. Also NREM

• Quiet alertness- less amount of time

• Waking activity and crying- communication

• Regular sleep- spend most of time here

• Irregular sleep - breathing irregular 

• Drowsiness- dosing off

infant crying

• communication and soothing. May cry if they hear another baby cry. Will learn to cry to get caregiver attention. Comes with some conditioning. Physical and emotional needs. 

  • To comfort: swaddle, hold, car or stroller ride. Pacifier. Massage. 

sensitive period

• a specific but limited time, usually early in an organism’s life, during which the organism is particularly susceptible to environmental influences relating to some particular facet of development

  • Devel of vision like the cat study  i.e. 

impact of tv/tech

•  poorer performance after watching a vid than a live demo. Neg language progress, attention, memory, and reading difficulties 

negative impacts on physical growth

• malnutrition/ limited breastfeeding?/ food insecurity, limited movement

supporting language devel

• respond to coos and babbles. Joint attention and comment on what child sees. Social games (i-spy) make believe play. Conversate. Read and engage 

eriksons stages (infancy and toddlerhood)

• Trust vs. Mistrust (infancy-1 yr)

  • See world as good or dont see world as good and trusting

  • Sympathetic and loving care leads to expecting the world to be caring if not then they do not expect kindness and withdraw to self protect. 

• Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (toddlerhood 1-3)

  • toddlers learn independence by exploring and doing things themselves. Support builds confidence and autonomy; overcontrol or criticism causes shame and doubt in their abilities.

Attachment

positive emotional bond between child and a particular individual 

bowlby

sense of home base 🏠. As they get more independent, they can roam further from a secure base.
an innate, evolutionary bond that ensures survival and forms the basis for future relationships through internal working models.

secure

• use mother as secure base. Seem at ease as long as mother is present. Explore on their own, returning to mom sometimes. Seek contact when mom returns after she leaves. 

avoidant (dissmive avoidant)

• do not seek proximity to mother, after she left, do not seem distressed. Avoid her when she returns, indifferent. 

Ambivalent (resistant/anxious-preoccupied)

• pos and neg reactions to their mother. Hardly explore envi. Anxious when mom leaves and show distress. Ambivalent reactions when she returns wanting to be close but also upset. 

Disorganized/disoriented (fearful-avoidant)

 inconsistent, contradicitry, and confused behavior. May go to mom when she trunks but not look at her. 

childhood injuries

• prevention and supervision. Unintentional injuries are leading cause of mortality (car accidents, drowning).  Mostly boys. Lead poisoning (older houses w/ paint). 

  • Safe envi, improve public edu, social support

brain devel

• by 5, brain weighs 90% of average adult brain weight. 

  • Corpus callosum - connects the 2 hemispheres becomes thicker and has aboout 800 million fibers to coordinate. 

  • Left: verbal. Speaking, reading, reasoning 

  • Right: spatial, patterns, drawing, music

  • Stimulate the brain for optimal brain devel: through the senses!

toilet training

• no single time to begin toilet training. Readiness is usually between 18-24 mos. Depends really on when the child shows they want to learn. Takes awhile for bladder control (~5 yo). 

cognitive development/ improvements and limitations (in early childhood/preschool yrs)

• symbolic thinking, better language, better mental imagery. ,limits: limited logic, centration, conservation, egocentric. 

private speech

• speech that is spoken to themselves. May guide behavior and thought. Can try out ideas, acting as own sounding board. Thinking is more controlled. 

Piagets pre operational stage 

• Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development, occurring from about ages 2 to 7. Rapid advances in mental representation. Language and imagination. Make believe play is more advanced. Soiodamatic play. Dual represenations- drawing and maps represent real world 

  • Limitations: 

    • Egocentrism: think only in their mind or their POV

    • Centration: one point, not all

    • Irreversibility: hard to reverse steps

    • Conservation: glass example.

    • Hierarchial classification: simple grouping 

gender stereotyping

• preschoolers get a wide range of these beliefs. Prenatal hormones contribute to boys' rougher play and for preference of same sex playmates. Influenced by society. Form gender schemas and apply to themselves and world. Often from parents, teachers, peers, and society 

erikson: initiative v guilt (3-6)

• exploration and independence

  • Children begin to take initiative, make plans, and try new things. If encouraged, they feel capable and purposeful. If criticized or controlled too much, they may feel guilty about their efforts to be independent.

peer relationships 

• how play changes 🛝

  • Peer interactions increase @ this stage. nonsocial/ solitary → parallel (next to each other) → associate (seperate play and exchange toys) → cooperative play (interact for common goal 

  • Solitary and parallel are consistent between 3-6 

  • Culture variations- some promote togetherness (india) or reserved (china)

child rearing styles

• Authoritarian – strict, low warmth. Controlling, punitive, rigid, cold. Word is the law. Unquestioned obedience. 

• Permissive – lenient, few rules. The house you want to go over all the time. Lax inconsistent feedback. Dont require much from their children. No limits 

• Uninvolved – neglectful. No interest in children, indifferent, rejecting. Detached emotionally. 

• ⭐Authoritative – balanced, most effective. Set clear and firm limits. Loving and emotionally supportive while being reasonable. Encourage their kid to be independent

Academic learned helplessness

• getting negative feedback about their ability may lead to this. (academic) when a child stops trying in school because they believe nothing they do will help them succeed. 

  • They might think they’re “just bad” at a subject and give up easily, even when they could improve with effort or help.may attribute success to external factors (luck) 

mastery-oriented

• belief that success is due to their effort

traditional v social constructivist classrooms 

• teacher-led (they are the sole authority for knowledge, rules, etc) vs. collaborative learning (encourages students to construct their own knowledge - small groups, teacher guides and supports the students learning) 

Peer relationships (middle childhood)

prosocial. Established peer groups. Similar interests, intimacy and loyalty.

Aggression changes (middle childhood)

• (changes in physical and verbal aggression)– physical ↓ (more a younger kid thing), verbal/relational ↑

bullying (middle ch)

• increases. repeated aggressive behaviors intended to harm another person that involve a real or perceived power imbalance. Bullies are often being bullied at home.  

  • Verbal: 🗣 called names, threatened, made fun of bc of physical attributes

  • Physical: actual aggression, hitting, pushing, touching 

  • Relational: subtle. Socially attacked. Excluding them from social activities 

  • Cyber: 📲 phones or computers to send hurtful messages, rumors, or post embarrassing photos or info about others through social media etc. hard to find relief bc access is 24/7

school refusal/ phobia

fears of physical harm, peer rejection, dying (shootings), academic failure etc. common in middle chilhood bc they have more awareness.

emotional development (middle childhood)

• self conscious emotions of pride and guilt become governed by personal responsibility. Shame. Empathy increases; sensitivity to others. Tantrums diminish and use more language to communicate. 

divorce

• pretty common. Reaction to divorce depends on timing, age. Some may be anxious and hard time adjusting. Sometimes it is beneficial (DV). sometimes they blame themselves. Depends on how “messy” the divorce is. May be financially impacted (less money). 

  • Early sexual acitivty, long term relationship difficultires. 

childhood obesity/ diabetes (middle childhood)

• defined as a body mass index (BMI) at or above the 95th percentile for children of the same age and sex. Found more in children of low income families. Risk for heart disease, type 2 diabetes, cancer and other disease. Genetic and social characterisics and diet. Exercise is declining.

effective interventions for obesity

•  prevention through diet, exercise, education/ family-based approaches, and school involvement. Limit technology and offer healthy food options. Psychoeducation.

  • Who is buying the food at home? 

Importance of Play 

• supports social, emotional, and cognitive growth

  • Play is vital for children's growth and development because it provides opportunities for them to practice social-emotional skills, problem-solving, imagination, language, and physical activity. In some hunter-gatherer societies, play is used to prepare children for adulthood without adult intervention. 

ACE Study (Adverse Childhood Experiences)

•  long-term effects of trauma on health and development

  • The ACE Study (Adverse Childhood Experiences Study) looked at how stressful or traumatic experiences in childhood—like abuse, neglect, or household problems—affect health and behavior later in life.

  • It found that the more ACEs a person has, the higher their risk for problems like mental illness, substance use, and chronic diseases as an adult.

impact of overparenting

• Limits Autonomy and Self-Efficacy. May not be self-sufficient when they are older bc they are used to their parent doing it for them. It is harder for them to take initiative and have self-confidence, as they may base their worth on school or grades.