Cognitive Psych Exam 2

Memory

Allows us to retain, retrieve, and use information after the original stimulus is gone.

Encoding

Getting information in.

Storage

Keeping information over time.

Retrieval

Accessing information when needed.

Modal Model of Memory

Flow of Information: Sensory Memory → Short-Term Memory → Long-Term Memory.

Sensory Memory

Holds raw sensory input briefly.

Iconic Memory

Visual memory that lasts less than a second.

Echoic Memory

Auditory memory that lasts about 2-4 seconds.

Short-Term Memory (STM)

Capacity: ~7 ± 2 items; Duration: ~15-20 seconds without rehearsal.

Decay

Loss of information over time.

Interference

New information pushing out old information.

Chunking

Organizing smaller units into meaningful groups to increase STM capacity.

Working Memory

Emphasizes active processing rather than passive storage.

Phonological Loop

Processes and stores verbal and auditory information.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

Responsible for visual and spatial information.

Central Executive

Coordinates the other components, controls attention, and selects strategies.

Episodic Buffer

Integrates visual, auditory, and spatial info into a single episode.

Prefrontal Cortex

Critical for maintaining information in consciousness.

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

Stores information over long periods — minutes to a lifetime.

Explicit Memory

Conscious recall — you can intentionally bring it to mind.

Episodic Memory

Memory for personal experiences or events, including contextual details.

Semantic Memory

General knowledge and facts about the world, not tied to a specific event.

Implicit Memory

Unconscious influences on behavior that are not easily verbalized.

Procedural Memory

Knowing how (skills and habits, e.g., riding a bike, typing).

Priming

Prior exposure to a stimulus influences later responses.

Conditioning

Associating stimuli and responses (Pavlovian learning).

H.M. (Henry Molaison)

Hippocampus removed → severe anterograde amnesia. Could not form new LTMs but could learn new motor skills (intact procedural memory).

K.F.

Parietal lobe damage → poor STM but intact LTM.

K.C.

Lost episodic memory (couldn't remember personal events) but retained semantic knowledge.

Autobiographical Memory

Combination of episodic and semantic information about one's own life. Includes sensory and emotional details. Helps maintain identity and continuity over time.

Constructive Episodic Simulation Hypothesis

The same neural network used to remember the past is used to imagine the future. Suggests episodic memory plays a role in planning and problem-solving.

Maintenance Rehearsal

Simple repetition (shallow). Minimal LTM storage.

Elaborative Rehearsal

Making meaningful connections with existing knowledge (deep).

Levels of Processing Theory

The deeper the processing, the stronger the memory. Shallow: Focus on surface features (e.g., appearance, sound). Deep: Focus on meaning (e.g., category, context).

Visual Imagery

Creating mental images enhances recall by linking concepts together.

Self-Reference Effect

Relating info to yourself improves retention.

Generation Effect

Producing material yourself (vs. passively reading) improves learning.

Organization

Grouping related info creates retrieval pathways.

Testing Effect

Actively retrieving info strengthens memory more than rereading.

Cued Recall

Recall improved when given prompts related to the original learning.

Encoding Specificity

Recall is best when retrieval context matches encoding context.

State-Dependent Learning

Internal states (mood, alertness) during learning and testing match.

Transfer-Appropriate Processing

Memory performance is best when mental operations at retrieval match those at encoding.

Consolidation

Biological process that stabilizes memory traces after encoding.

Synaptic Consolidation

Occurs within hours — strengthens neural connections.

Systems Consolidation

Gradual reorganization across brain regions — hippocampus transfers memories to cortex over time.

Sleep

Plays a key role — enhances consolidation and prevents interference.

Reminiscence Bump

People over 40 recall more events from ages 10-30.

Flashbulb Memories

Vivid, detailed recollections of shocking or emotional events.

Misinformation Effect

After witnessing an event, misleading information changes later recall.

Source Monitoring Errors

Confusing the source of a memory (e.g., mixing imagination and real experience).

High Emotional Events

Emotional and transitional (significant life) points are easier to recall. These moments anchor autobiographical memory.

Reminiscence Bump

Adults over 40 recall most memories from ages 10-30 (adolescence to early adulthood).

Self-Image Hypothesis

Period of forming identity and self-concept.

Cognitive Hypothesis

Encoding is stronger during rapid change (e.g., moving to a new country shifts the bump).

Cultural Life Script Hypothesis

Memories align with culturally expected life events (graduation, marriage, etc.).

Memory for "Exceptional" Events

Emotional events are remembered more vividly. Emotion enhances consolidation over time.

Flashbulb Memories

Memory for context of learning about a shocking/emotional event, not the event itself.

Key Findings of Flashbulb Memories

Seem vivid but not photographic or immune to decay. Can change over time despite confidence.

Talarico & Rubin (2003)

Initial vividness fades; accuracy comparable to regular memories. Confidence remains high even as details drift.

Narrative rehearsal hypothesis

Repeated exposure (media, conversations) reinforces but can distort.

Apparent Contradiction

Strong emotions → stronger, more vivid memories BUT flashbulb memories are not more accurate than everyday ones.

Source Monitoring

Determining the origin of a memory (real vs. imagined).

Source Monitoring Error

Misattributing source of a memory.

Cryptomnesia

Unconscious plagiarism.

Illusory Truth Effect

Repeated exposure increases belief in truth of statements.

Pragmatic Inference

Memories can be shaped by what's implied or expected.

Schemas & Scripts

Schema: Knowledge structure for a setting (e.g., "office"). Script: Sequence of actions for events (e.g., "going to a restaurant").

False Childhood Memories

False events can be implanted during interviews. Repetition increases belief (illusory truth effect).

Misinformation Effect

Misleading information after an event changes recall.

Loftus & Palmer Study

Wording ("smashed" vs. "hit") altered memory of car crash speed and damage.

Infantile Amnesia

Inability to recall early childhood events due to underdeveloped hippocampus and prefrontal cortex.

Emotion and Memory

Emotion strengthens memory formation but not accuracy.