AP Psychology Unit 1A

nature-nurture issue

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science views traits and behaviors as arising from the interaction of nature and nurture.

natural selection

the principle that the inherited traits enabling an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind

behavior genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.

mutation

a random error in gene replication that leads to a change.

environment

every nongenetic influence

heredity

the genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring.

genes

the biochemical units of heredity.

genome

the complete instructions for making an organism.

identical (monozygotic) twins

individuals who developed from a single fertilized egg that split in two

fraternal (dizygotic) twins

individuals who developed from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than ordinary siblings

Interaction

the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity).

epigenetics

"above" or "in addition to" (epi) genetics; the study of the molecular mechanisms by which environments can influence genetic expression (without a DNA change).

nervous system

the body's speedy

central nervous system (CNS)

the brain and spinal cord.

peripheral nervous system (PNS

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body.

nerves

bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles

sensory (afferent) neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the body's tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.

motor (efferent) neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands.

Interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord; they communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system.

autonomic [aw-tuh-NAHM-ik] nervous system (ANS)

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body

Reflex

a simple

Neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.

cell body

the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell's life-support center.

Dendrites

a neuron's often bushy

Axon

the segmented neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands.

myelin [MY-uh-lin] sheath

a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; it enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next.

glial cells (glia)

cells in the nervous system that support

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.

Threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.

refractory period

in neural processing

all-or-none response

a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing.

synapse [SIN-aps]

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft.

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gap between neurons. When released by the sending neuron

Reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron.

endorphins [en-DOR-fins]

"morphine within"; natural

opioid-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

Agonist

a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter's action.

Antagonist

a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter's action.

endocrine [EN-duh-krin]

system the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands and fat tissue that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

Hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands

psychoactive drug

a chemical substance that alters the brain

substance use disorder

a disorder characterized by continued substance use despite resulting life disruption.

Depressants

drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions.

Tolerance

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug

Addiction

an everyday term for compulsive substance use (and sometimes for dysfunctional behavior patterns

Withdrawal

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug or behavior.

Barbiturates

drugs that depress central nervous system activity

Opioids

opium and its derivatives; they depress neural activity

Stimulants

drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

Hallucinogens

psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.

near-death experience

an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations.

biological psychology

the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological

levels of analysis

the differing complementary views

Neuroplasticity

the brain's ability to change

lesion [LEE-zhuhn]

tissue destruction. Brain lesions may occur naturally (from disease or trauma)

EEG (electroencephalogram)

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

MEG (magnetoencephalography)

a brain-imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from the brain's natural electrical activity.

CT (computed tomography) scan

a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain's structure.

PET (positron emission tomography)

a technique for detecting brain activity that displays where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy.

fMRI (functional MRI)

a technique for revealing blood flow and

Hindbrain

consists of the medulla

Midbrain

found atop the brainstem; connects the hindbrain with the forebrain

Forebrain

consists of the cerebral cortex

Brainstem

the central core of the brain

medulla [muh-DUL-uh]

the hindbrain structure that is the brainstem's base; controls heartbeat and breathing.

thalamus [THAL-uh-muss]

the forebrain's sensory control center

reticular formation

a nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus; it filters information and plays an important role in controlling arousal.

cerebellum [sehr-uh- BELL-um]

the hindbrain's "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input

limbic system

neural system located mostly in the forebrain — below the cerebral hemispheres — that includes the amygdala

amygdala [uh-MIG-duh-la]

two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion.

hypothalamus [hi-po-THAL- uh-muss]

a limbic system neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating

Hippocampus

a neural center in the limbic system that helps process explicit (conscious) memories — of facts and events — for storage.

cerebral [seh-REE-bruhl] cortex

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the forebrain's cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.

frontal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead. They enable linguistic processing

parietal [puh-RYE-uh-tuhl] lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; it receives sensory input for touch and body position.

occipital [ahk-SIP-uh-tuhl] lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; it includes areas that receive information from the visual fields.

temporal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; it includes the auditory areas

motor cortex

a cerebral cortex area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.

somatosensory cortex

a cerebral cortex area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions

Neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons.

corpus callosum [KOR-pus kah-LOW-sum]

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.

split brain

a condition resulting from surgery that separates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them.

Consciousness

our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment.

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (thinking

dual processing

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.

Blindsight

a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it.

parallel processing

processing multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem simultaneously.

sequential processing

processing one aspect of a stimulus or problem at a time; generally used to process new information or to solve difficult problems.

sleep

a periodic

circadian [ser-KAY-dee-an] rhythm

our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example

REM sleep

rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep