all Princeton

Johannes Gutenberg

Inventor of the printing press

Protestant Reformation

16th-century movement led by Martin Luther

Indulgences

Church pardons for sins, criticized by Luther

Martin Luther

German monk who challenged Catholic Church

Pope Leo X

Pope during Luther's time, opposed his ideas

Lutherans

Followers of Martin Luther's teachings

Calvinism

Protestant theology by John Calvin

King Henry VIII

English monarch who broke from the Catholic Church

Catholic Reformation

Catholic response to Protestant Reformation

Jesuits

Catholic order founded by Ignatius of Loyola

Council of Trent

Catholic Church's response to Reformation

Nicolaus Copernicus

Proposed heliocentric model of the universe

Galileo

Italian scientist who supported Copernican theory

Francis Bacon

English philosopher, pioneer of the scientific method

Johannes Kepler

German astronomer, laws of planetary motion

Sir Isaac Newton

English physicist, laws of motion and gravity

Deism

Belief in a creator but rejecting religious dogma

King Ferdinand/Queen Isabella

Spanish monarchs who sponsored Columbus

Act of Supremacy

Declared the English monarch head of the Church

James I

King of England and Scotland, sponsored the King James Bible

Charles I

King of England, opposed by Parliament, executed

Glorious Revolution

Bloodless overthrow of James II

Edict of Nantes

Granted religious tolerance to French Protestants

English Bill of Rights

Document limiting the power of the monarchy

Louis XIV

Absolute monarch of France, "Sun King"

Thirty Years’ War

Religious and political conflict in Europe

Peace of Westphalia

Ended the Thirty Years' War

Boyars

Russian nobles

Cossacks

Semi-military communities in Russia

Time of Troubles

Period of political instability in Russia

Michael Romanov

First Romanov tsar, ended Time of Troubles

Peter the Great

Tsar who modernized Russia

Catherine the Great

Enlightened despot, expanded Russian empire

Janissaries

Elite Ottoman soldiers

Selim I

Ottoman sultan, expanded empire

Suleiman I

Ottoman sultan, "the Magnificent"

Babur

Founder of the Mughal Empire in India

Mughal Empire

Muslim empire in India

Akbar

Mughal emperor, known for religious tolerance

Shah Jahan

Mughal emperor, built the Taj Mahal

Aurangzeb

Mughal emperor, expanded empire but ruled harshly

Asanti

West African kingdom known for gold

Kongo

Central African kingdom, influenced by Portuguese

Queen Nzinga

Angolan queen, resisted Portuguese colonization

Zheng He

Chinese explorer, voyages in the Indian Ocean

Manchus

Ethnic group that established the Qing Dynasty in China

Tokugawa Shogunate

Japanese feudal government

National Seclusion Policy

Japanese policy limiting foreign influence

Prince Henry the Navigator

Portuguese prince, sponsored exploration

Vasco da Gama

Portuguese explorer, first to sail to India

Christopher Columbus

Italian explorer, discovered the Americas

Treaty of Tordesillas

Divided the New World between Spain and Portugal

Ferdinand Magellan

Portuguese explorer, circumnavigated the globe

The Astrolabe

Navigational instrument for determining latitude

The Magnetic Compass

Navigational tool for direction

Hernan Cortes

Spanish conquistador, conquered the Aztecs

Francisco Pizarro

Spanish conquistador, conquered the Incas

Encomienda System

Spanish labor system in the Americas

Peninsulares

Spanish colonists born in Spain

Creoles

Spanish colonists born in the Americas

Mestizos

People of mixed European and indigenous ancestry

Mulattos

People of mixed European and African ancestry

Viceroys

Spanish colonial rulers in the Americas

Middle Passage

Transatlantic slave trade route

Columbian Exchange

Exchange of goods, ideas, and diseases between the Old and New Worlds

Joint-stock company

Business entity with shared ownership

Dutch East India Company

Trading company with Dutch monopoly in Asia

Mercantilism

Economic policy promoting state control of trade

Humanism

Renaissance intellectual movement focusing on human potential

Buddhism

Ancient Indian religion founded by Siddhartha Gautama

Christianity

Monotheistic faith centered around Jesus Christ's teachings

Confucianism

Chinese philosophy emphasizing moral values and social harmony

Hinduism

Major religion in India with diverse beliefs and practices

Islam

Monotheistic religion based on the teachings of Muhammad

Judaism

Oldest monotheistic religion, with a focus on Torah teachings

Abbasid Dynasty

Golden age of Islamic civilization, known for advancements

House of Wisdom

Scholarly center in Baghdad during the Islamic Golden Age

Mamluks

Medieval Muslim slave soldiers, rulers of Egypt and Syria

Middle Ages

Period in European history from 5th to 15th century

Feudalism

Social system with lords, vassals, and land ownership

Nobles

High-ranking individuals in medieval society

Manors

Self-sufficient estates owned by lords during feudalism

Three-field system

Agricultural practice rotating crops for efficiency

Code of chivalry

Knightly code emphasizing honor, bravery, and courtesy

Serfs

Peasants bound to the land during feudalism

English Parliament

Representative assembly in England

Magna Carta

Charter limiting the king's power, signed in 1215

Joan of Arc

French heroine during the Hundred Years' War

Hundred Years' War

Conflict between England and France (1337–1453)

Queen Isabella/Ferdinand

Spanish monarchs who sponsored Columbus

Spanish Inquisition

Church-led persecution of heretics in Spain

Tatars

Turkic-speaking people, known for their military prowess

Ivan III

Grand Prince of Moscow, helped unite Russia

Ivan the Terrible

First Tsar of Russia, known for his tyranny

Foot binding

Chinese practice of tightly binding women's feet

Shogun

Military dictator of Japan during the feudal period

Daimyo

Feudal lords in Japan, vassals to the shogun

Code of Bushido

Samurai code of honor and conduct

Delhi Sultanate

Islamic kingdom in India from 13th to 16th century

Khmer Empire

Ancient Southeast Asian empire, known for Angkor Wat