AP human geo

Mercator map projection

A cylindrical map projection that preserves direction (useful for navigation) but greatly distorts size near the poles, making high-latitude regions appear much larger than they actually are.

Goode Homolosine projection

A map projection that uses multiple interruptions to minimize distortion of shape and area. It accurately represents landmasses but interrupts the oceans, making it less useful for navigation.

Fuller map projection

Also called the Dymaxion projection, it shows the globe as a flattened icosahedron. It maintains relative size and shape well and avoids splitting continents, but directions and geographic orientation are distorted.

Robinson projection

A compromise map projection that balances distortions of size, shape, distance, and direction. It presents an overall visually pleasing view of the Earth, often used in world maps.

Winkel Tripel projection

A compromise projection that minimizes overall distortion of area, direction, and distance. Frequently used by the National Geographic Society because it looks more natural.

Gall-Peters projection

A cylindrical projection that preserves relative size (area) of landmasses but distorts their shapes, making continents appear stretched or squished. Used to emphasize global equality.

Reference maps

Maps that show general information about places, such as boundaries, physical features, roads, or topography. They are used for navigation and locating places.

Absolute distance

The exact measurement of space between two points, often in standard units like miles or kilometers.

Relative distance

A measure of distance in terms of time, cost, or effort required to travel between two places rather than just physical length.

Absolute direction

Cardinal directions (north, south, east, west) based on a fixed reference such as Earth’s grid.

Relative direction

Directions based on perception or situation (e.g., “left,” “behind,” or “towards downtown”), which may vary depending on the observer.

Absolute location

The precise location of a place on Earth’s surface, expressed in latitude and longitude coordinates.

Relative location

The position of a place compared to other locations, described using landmarks, distance, or direction.

Thematic map

A map that emphasizes a specific topic or theme, such as population density, climate, or economic activities, rather than general geographic information.

Remote sensing

The collection of data about Earth’s surface using satellites, aircraft, or other technology without direct physical contact.

Field observations

Directly collecting geographic data through visits, surveys, or interviews at a location.

Landscape analysis

The study of visible features of a landscape (natural and human-made) to understand cultural, economic, and environmental influences.

Photo analysis

Interpreting aerial photographs or satellite images to gather geographic information about land use, settlement, or environmental change.

Qualitative data

Non-numerical information that describes characteristics, experiences, or meanings (e.g., interviews, observations, cultural studies).

Quantitative data

Numerical information that can be measured and analyzed statistically (e.g., census data, economic figures).

Local scale

A geographic level focused on a small area, such as a city, community, or neighborhood.

Regional scale

A geographic level that looks at larger areas that share common characteristics, such as the Midwest or the Middle East.

National scale

A geographic level focused on an entire country and its characteristics.

Sub-national scale

A level of geography below the national level, such as states, provinces, or counties.

Distance decay

The principle that interaction between two places decreases as the distance between them increases.

Time-space compression

The effect of modern communication and transportation technologies in reducing the relative distance between places, making them feel closer.

Spatial associations

The relationship between the distribution of one feature and the distribution of another across geographic space.

Spatial distribution

The arrangement of a phenomenon across Earth’s surface, often analyzed in terms of density, concentration, and pattern.

Desalination

The process of removing salt from seawater to produce fresh water for human use.

Environmental possibilism

The belief that the environment sets some constraints, but human culture and technology allow people to adapt and modify their environment to overcome those limits.

Environmental determinism

The outdated theory that human behavior and culture are shaped and controlled entirely by the physical environment.

Small scale

A map scale that shows a large area with little detail (e.g., world map).

Large scale

A map scale that shows a small area with great detail (e.g., city map).

Formal region

An area defined by one or more measurable, shared traits (such as language, climate, or political boundaries).

Functional region (nodal)

A region organized around a central point or node, with surrounding areas connected by movement, communication, or economic activity (e.g., metropolitan areas).

Perceptual region (vernacular)

A region defined by people’s perceptions, feelings, or cultural identity rather than strict boundaries (e.g., “the South” in the U.S.).