Napoleon's rise to power

What was the Coup of Brumaire?

The overthrow of the Directory on 18–19 Brumaire Year VIII (9–10 Nov 1799) leading to Napoleon’s rise

What was Sieyès' role in the coup?

Planned the coup to replace the Directory with stronger government; recruited Napoleon

Why was Napoleon chosen over Joubert?

Joubert was killed at the Battle of Novi in August 1799

How did Sieyès manipulate the councils?

Bribed members, placed Lucien Bonaparte as President of Council of 500, deployed troops

What happened on 18 Brumaire?

Council of Ancients moved to Saint-Cloud over a fake Jacobin threat; troops surrounded the area

What was Napoleon’s military role during the coup?

Commanded Parisian troops and oversaw security at Saint-Cloud

What led to the fall of the Directory?

Sieyès and Ducos resigned, Barras was persuaded to step down, others were arrested

What crisis occurred on 19 Brumaire?

Napoleon stormed the Council of Ancients and 500 but faced resistance

How did Lucien Bonaparte resolve the crisis in the Council of 500?

Called in palace guards; Murat’s grenadiers expelled the deputies

What government replaced the Directory?

Provisional Consulate with Napoleon, Sieyès, and Ducos as Consuls

What miscalculation did Sieyès make?

Thought Napoleon could be controlled, but Napoleon dominated quickly

When was the Constitution of Year VIII adopted?

24 December 1799

Who helped write the Constitution of Year VIII?

Sieyès and Pierre Daunou

What was the goal of the Constitution of Year VIII?

Establish strong executive power

Describe the 1st stage of the electoral process

All men over 21 (~6 million) voted for a communal list (600,000 citizens)

Describe the 2nd stage of the electoral process

Communal list elected a departmental list (60,000 citizens)

Describe the 3rd stage of the electoral process

Departmental list selected 6,000 Notables for high office

What was the role of the Tribunate?

100 members could debate laws but not vote

What was the role of the Legislative Body?

300 members could vote on laws but not debate

What was the role of the Council of State?

Prepared legislation and advised the First Consul

What was the Senate’s function?

80 life members nominated by First Consul; could override laws with a senatus consultum

Who held executive power in the Constitution of Year VIII?

Three Consuls, but the First Consul (Napoleon) was dominant

Who were the other two Consuls?

Cambacérès (moderate republican) and Lebrun (royalist)

What powers did Napoleon have as First Consul?

Appoint/dismiss ministers, initiate legislation, control foreign policy

How did the Constitution ensure loyalty to Napoleon?

Co-Consuls were politically moderate and subordinate

What was the major strength of the Constitution?

Concentrated power in Napoleon’s hands while maintaining appearance of republicanism

How was popular representation weakened?

Only 6,000 of ~6 million could reach final electoral stage

Why was the legislature weak?

Couldn’t initiate legislation; divided into debating and voting bodies

What were the weaknesses of the Constitution?

Complex, top-down control, no checks and balances

What was the ultimate consequence of these weaknesses?

Napoleon declared himself Emperor in 1804

How did Napoleon present himself politically in 1799?

Claimed to be “heir of the Revolution” but already centralising power

How did the public react to the Coup of Brumaire?

With apathy; population was tired of instability

Who opposed the coup?

Jacobins in some provinces

What was the economic condition of France in 1799?

Agricultural decline, hyperinflation, industrial stagnation

What was the nature of voting under the new constitution?

Charade—Napoleon held the real power

What was the military situation in 1799?

War going well but 2nd Coalition still a threat

What did most of the population want in 1799?

Stability after years of revolution and war

What was the historical significance of 1799?

End of revolutionary period; beginning of Napoleonic rule

What reputation did Napoleon acquire early on?

Military genius, especially during the Italian Campaign

What were key features of Napoleon's military tactics?

Innovation, speed, and manoeuvrability

How did Napoleon gain the respect of his troops?

Worked tirelessly, led by example, gave speeches, and ensured they were fed and supplied

What role did Josephine play in Napoleon's ambition?

Marriage to Josephine motivated his ambition

What advantage did Napoleon's officer corps have?

Promoted by merit rather than aristocracy

What motivated French troops under Napoleon?

Fighting for a cause and promotion opportunities boosted morale and effectiveness

What was the initial objective of the Italian Campaign?

Hold back Austrians in Italy as a diversion

What condition was the Army of Italy in before the campaign?

Demoralised, poor, under-nourished, and unpaid

How did Napoleon address the payment of troops?

Insisted on paying in silver to protect from inflation

What was the Montenotte Campaign (1796)?

Rapid French victories that boosted troop confidence

What did the Armistice of Cherasco achieve (April 1796)?

Piedmont-Sardinia withdrew from the war; France gained Nice, Savoy, and free passage

Why was the Battle of Lodi (May 1796) important?

Napoleon's bravery was publicised; Milan was occupied

What were the outcomes of the Battle of Lodi?

Art treasures looted, treaties signed with the Pope and Naples

What happened in the Quadrilateral Fortresses Campaign (1796–1797)?

Mantua captured after battles at Arcola and Rivoli; Austrian supply lines disrupted

What client states did Napoleon create in Italy?

Cispadane and Transpadane Republics, merged into Cisalpine Republic (1797)

What was the Ligurian Republic?

Client state established around Genoa with its own constitution

How close did Napoleon get to Vienna in April 1797?

Reached Leoben, 96 km from Vienna

What treaty ended Napoleon’s Italian Campaign?

Treaty of Campo Formio (17 October 1797)

What were the terms of the Treaty of Campo Formio?

French control of Belgium, Cisalpine, and Ligurian Republics; Austrian recognition of French Rhine frontier

What was the impact of the Treaty of Campo Formio?

Reshaped Europe; ended the War of the First Coalition (except with Britain)

How did the Italian Campaign affect Napoleon's reputation?

Cemented his fame as military leader, diplomat, and state-maker

What were the objectives of the Egyptian Campaign (1798–1799)?

Protect French trade, disrupt British commerce, expand into Middle East, export Enlightenment ideals

When did Napoleon depart for Egypt and with how many troops?

May 1798 with 35,000 troops (Army of the Orient)

What did Napoleon capture in June 1798?

Malta

What battle did Napoleon win near Cairo?

Battle of the Pyramids (July 1798)

What happened at Aboukir Bay in August 1798?

British Admiral Nelson destroyed the French fleet

What were the major challenges in Egypt?

Nationalist uprisings, British blockade, failed movement to India and Constantinople

What was the outcome of Napoleon’s Syrian campaign (1799)?

Captured Jaffa but abandoned siege of Acre

When did Napoleon leave Egypt?

August 1799, leaving his soldiers behind

What happened when Napoleon returned to France in October 1799?

He received a hero’s welcome

What were Napoleon’s key military tactics and strategies?

Speed, forced marches, self-contained armies, reserve corps, deceptive manoeuvres

How were Napoleon’s armies structured?

Small units (10,000–30,000) integrating infantry, artillery, and cavalry

How did Napoleon improve army logistics?

Troops lived off the land

How did Napoleon maintain troop morale?

Ensured soldiers were well-fed, paid, and motivated

What were key personal qualities of Napoleon?

Charisma, force of personality, ability to inspire and adapt

How did Napoleon engage with his soldiers?

Direct speeches, sharing hardships, leading by example

What psychological effect did Napoleon’s early victories have?

Demoralised enemies and created aura of invincibility

How did Napoleon's reputation help France diplomatically and militarily?

Motivated troops and allies, consolidating success

When was the Constitution of the Directory drawn up?

August 1795 by the Thermidorians

When was the Constitution of the Directory ratified and enacted?

Ratified by plebiscite in September 1795, enacted in November 1795

What political goal did the Constitution of the Directory reflect?

Desire for stability and moderation

What decree affected membership of the new Councils under the Directory?

Two-thirds of places in the Council of 500 and Council of Ancients would go to existing deputies from the Convention

What was the Council of 500?

Legislative body of deputies over 30 who proposed and drafted legislation

What was the Council of Ancients?

250 married or widowed men over 40 who approved or rejected legislation but could not propose it

What was the Directory of Five?

Executive body chosen by the Ancients from a list provided by the 500; appointed ministers but could not sit in Councils

How often did one Director retire?

Annually, chosen by lot

What was the electoral system under the Directory?

Annual elections with one-third of deputies stepping down each year

Who could vote in Directory elections?

Male taxpayers over 21 (~5.5 million out of 8 million adult males)

Who could be electors under the Directory?

Wealthy taxpayers (~1 million), 30,000 of whom could sit in assemblies

Who was Lazare Carnot?

Director and key war organiser, spared exile after Thermidor

Who was Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès?

Director elected in 1795, influential in 1799

Who was Pierre-Roger Ducos?

Moderate Director who avoided prominence during the Terror

Who was Paul Barras?

Director who suppressed counter-revolution and served throughout the Directory

What caused severe inflation in the Directory era?

Shift to liberal economic policy and end of price controls

What happened to assignats by the end of 1795?

They became worthless

What made the Directory's budget deficit worse?

War costs and inefficient tax collection

What caused food shortages during the Directory?

Poor harvests (1795) and grain speculators

What disrupted trade during the Directory?

British naval blockades and restricted colonial trade

What was introduced in February 1796 to replace assignats?

Mandats (800 million francs issued to replace 24 billion assignats)

Why did mandats fail?

Rapid counterfeiting; became worthless within a year

What was the consequence of switching to metal currency?

Halted inflation but caused deflation, hurting trade

What tax reforms were introduced in 1798?

New property taxes (e.g. on doors and windows) and improved collection under Finance Minister Ramel