accommodation
the process of modifying a schema to account for new information; the process of the eyes lens changing shape in order to focus on distant or near objects
acetylcholine (ACh)
a neurotransmitter involved in learning, memory and muscle movement
action potential
the electrical process by which information is transmitted the length of an axon
activation synthesis
the idea that dreams are the result of the cerebral cortex interpreting and organizing random flashes of brain activity, originating in the lower brain structures, especially the pons
after image
an image that remains after a stimulus is removed, especially one in which the colors are reversed
agonists
drugs which mimic the activity of neurotransmitters
all or none
description of the action of neurons when firing
amygdala
limbic system component associated with emotion, particularly fear and anger
antagonist
drug which blocks the activity of neurotransmitters
aphasia
impairment of language usually caused by damage to the left hemisphere
assimilation
interpreting new experiences in terms of existing schema
attachment
theory developed by Harlow; types include secure and insecure
authoritarian
style of parenting in which the parent creates strict rules for the child and the child has little or no input into determining the rules
autonomic nervous system
division of the nervous system that control the glands and organs; its divisions arouse or calm
autonomy vs. shame and doubt
Erikson's stage in which a toddler learns to exercise will and to do things independently; failure to do so causes shame and doubt
axon
extension of the neuron which carries, via an action potential, information that will be sent on to other neurons, muscles or glands
applied research
scientific investigations intended to solve practical problems
behavioral
perspective on psychology that sees psychology as an objective science without reference to mental states
binocular cues
retinal disparity and convergence which enable people to determine depth using both eyes
bipolar cells
eye neurons that receive information from the retinal cells and distribute information to the ganglion cells
blind spot
point in the retinal where the optic nerve leaves the retina so there are no rods or cones there
bottom-up processing
analysis that begins with sensory receptors and works its way up to the brain's integration of sensory information
hemispheres
we have two, right and left, and some brain functions seem to centered in one or the other
brainstem
oldest part of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells upon entering the skull; controls fundamental survival processes like heartrate and breathing
case study
scientific investigation in which a single subject is studied in great detail
CAT scan
a method of creating static images of the brain through computerized axial tomography
Central Nervous System
consists of the brain and the spinal cord
cerebellum
brain structure that controls well-learned motor activities like riding a bike
cerebral cortex
the fabric of interconnecting cells that blankets the brain hemispheres; the brain's center for information processing and control
chaining
using operant conditioning to teach a complex response by linking together less complex skills
chunking
organizing units of information into manageable units such as memorizing a phone number as three groups of information 248-555-1212
circadian rhythm
the daily biological rhythms that occur in a 24-hour period
classical conditioning
method of learning in which a neutral stimulus can be used to elicit a response that is usually a natural response to a stimulus
clinical
this type of psychologist studies, assesses and treats those with psychological disorders
cochlea
this coiled structure in the inner ear is fluid-filled and in it the energy from sound waves stimulate hair cells to produce neural impulses (transduction)
cognitive
perspective on psychology that stresses the importance of mental activities associated with thinking, remembering, etc
color blindness
a variety of disorders marked by inability to distinguish some or all colors
collectivist
this adjective describes cultures in which the individual is less important than the group
concrete operations
Piaget's stage in which children learn such concepts as conservation and mathematical transformations; about 7 - 11 years of age
conditioned response
in classical conditioning, the response elicited by the conditioned stimulus
conditioning
generally, learning in which certain experiences make certain behaviors more or less likely; there are two forms of this
conduction deafness
one type of hearing impairment caused by mechanical problems in the ear structures
cones
neurons in the retina that are responsible for color vision
confirmation bias
a tendency to search for information that supports one's preconceptions
confounding variable
extraneous factor that interferes with the action of the independent variable on the dependent variable
consciousness
one's awareness of one's environment and oneself.
control group
subjects in an experiment who do not receive application of the independent variable but are measured nonetheless for the dependent variable
cornea
the transparent outer covering of the eye
corpus callosum
the fibers that connect the right and left hemispheres, enabling them to communicate
correlation
the degree of relationship between two variables
correlation coefficient
a positive one near 1.0 indicates two variable are positively related; a negative number indicates a negative relationship; zero indicates no relationship
cross-sectional
type of study that measures a variable across several age groups at the same time
debriefing
giving participants in a research study a complete explanation of the study after the study is completed
delta waves
largest brain waves, associated with deep, dreamless sleep
dendrite
a branch off the cell body of a neuron that receives new information from other neurons
dependent variable
the variable that the experimenter measures at the end of the experiment
depth perception
an ability that we exercise by using both monocular and binocular cues
difference threshold
also called the jnd; smallest distinction between two stimuli that can consistently be detected
dopamine
a neurotransmitter that is associated with Parkinson's disease (too little of it) and schizophrenia (too much of it)
double blind
this term describes an experiment in which neither the subjects nor the experimenter knows whether a subject is a member of the experimental group or the control group
eardrum
also called the tympanic membrane
echoic
term that describes memory of sounds
EEG
initials of a method of representation of brain waves
egocentrism
in a toddler, the belief that others perceive the world in the same way that he or she does
embryo
early stage of human development, when cells have begun to differentiate
endorphins
neurotransmitters that give one a feeling of well-being, euphoria or eliminate pain
experiment
form of scientific investigation in which one variable is tested to determine its effect on another; establishes causation
experimental group
subjects in an experiment to whom the independent variable is administered
extinction
in classical conditioning, the process of eliminating the previously acquired association of the conditioned stimulus and conditioned response
false consensus
a belief that others share the same opinion about something, when actually most don't
feature detection
the ability of the brain to identify specific components of visual stimuli such as corners or edges
fetal alcohol syndrome
sometimes the result in a child of the mother's excessive drinking while pregnant, characterized by low birth weight, facial abnormalities, mental retardation
fetus
a stage in human development extending from about ten weeks after conception to birth
figure-ground
refers to our ability to distinguish foreground from background in visual images
fixed interval
describes the schedule of reinforcement wherein a worker receives a paycheck every Friday
fixed ratio
describes a schedule of reinforcement wherein a worker is paid for a certain sum for each product produced
flashbulb
term describes a vivid memory of a personally significant and emotional event
fluid
term describes a type of intelligence used to cope with novel situations and problems
crystallized
term describes a type of intelligence which applies cultural knowledge to solving problems
formal operations
One of Piaget's stages; includes the ability to use abstract thinking
fovea
the central focus area of the retina
frequency
theory of hearing which states that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the tone's frequency
functionalism
William James's school of thought that stressed the adaptive and survival value of behaviors
ganglion cells
their axons form the optic nerve
gestalt
German word for "whole", it refers to our tendency to perceive incomplete figures as complete
glial cell
this acts as a support system for neurons
heritability
the extent to which differences in a group of a characteristic is due to genetics, not environment
hindsight bias
the tendency, after an event occurs, to overestimate the likelihood that an event could have been predicted
hippocampus
limbic system component associated with memory
homeostasis
the steady, stable state that is the body's regulatory processes try to maintain
humanist
perspective in psychology that stresses the goodness of people and their possibility of reaching their fullest potential
hypothalamus
limbic system component that regulates hunger, body temperature and other functions
iconic
term that describes the memory of images
identity vs. role confusion
Erikson's stage during which teenagers and young adults search for and become their true selves
imprinting
evidence of critical period in some animals; they follow the first moving thing they see after hatching
independent variable
type of variable manipulated by the experimenter
individualist
culture in which the individual is valued more highly than the group
industry vs. inferiority
Erikson's stage between 6 and 11 years, when the child learns to be productive
information processing
humans accomplish this either in parallel (unconsciously) or in serial fashion (consciously)
informed consent
agreement to participate in psychology research, after being appraised of the dangers and benefits of the research