AP Psychology Mid-Year Review

accommodation

the process of modifying a schema to account for new information; the process of the eyes lens changing shape in order to focus on distant or near objects

acetylcholine (ACh)

a neurotransmitter involved in learning, memory and muscle movement

action potential

the electrical process by which information is transmitted the length of an axon

activation synthesis

the idea that dreams are the result of the cerebral cortex interpreting and organizing random flashes of brain activity, originating in the lower brain structures, especially the pons

after image

an image that remains after a stimulus is removed, especially one in which the colors are reversed

agonists

drugs which mimic the activity of neurotransmitters

all or none

description of the action of neurons when firing

amygdala

limbic system component associated with emotion, particularly fear and anger

antagonist

drug which blocks the activity of neurotransmitters

aphasia

impairment of language usually caused by damage to the left hemisphere

assimilation

interpreting new experiences in terms of existing schema

attachment

theory developed by Harlow; types include secure and insecure

authoritarian

style of parenting in which the parent creates strict rules for the child and the child has little or no input into determining the rules

autonomic nervous system

division of the nervous system that control the glands and organs; its divisions arouse or calm

autonomy vs. shame and doubt

Erikson's stage in which a toddler learns to exercise will and to do things independently; failure to do so causes shame and doubt

axon

extension of the neuron which carries, via an action potential, information that will be sent on to other neurons, muscles or glands

applied research

scientific investigations intended to solve practical problems

behavioral

perspective on psychology that sees psychology as an objective science without reference to mental states

binocular cues

retinal disparity and convergence which enable people to determine depth using both eyes

bipolar cells

eye neurons that receive information from the retinal cells and distribute information to the ganglion cells

blind spot

point in the retinal where the optic nerve leaves the retina so there are no rods or cones there

bottom-up processing

analysis that begins with sensory receptors and works its way up to the brain's integration of sensory information

hemispheres

we have two, right and left, and some brain functions seem to centered in one or the other

brainstem

oldest part of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells upon entering the skull; controls fundamental survival processes like heartrate and breathing

case study

scientific investigation in which a single subject is studied in great detail

CAT scan

a method of creating static images of the brain through computerized axial tomography

Central Nervous System

consists of the brain and the spinal cord

cerebellum

brain structure that controls well-learned motor activities like riding a bike

cerebral cortex

the fabric of interconnecting cells that blankets the brain hemispheres; the brain's center for information processing and control

chaining

using operant conditioning to teach a complex response by linking together less complex skills

chunking

organizing units of information into manageable units such as memorizing a phone number as three groups of information 248-555-1212

circadian rhythm

the daily biological rhythms that occur in a 24-hour period

classical conditioning

method of learning in which a neutral stimulus can be used to elicit a response that is usually a natural response to a stimulus

clinical

this type of psychologist studies, assesses and treats those with psychological disorders

cochlea

this coiled structure in the inner ear is fluid-filled and in it the energy from sound waves stimulate hair cells to produce neural impulses (transduction)

cognitive

perspective on psychology that stresses the importance of mental activities associated with thinking, remembering, etc

color blindness

a variety of disorders marked by inability to distinguish some or all colors

collectivist

this adjective describes cultures in which the individual is less important than the group

concrete operations

Piaget's stage in which children learn such concepts as conservation and mathematical transformations; about 7 - 11 years of age

conditioned response

in classical conditioning, the response elicited by the conditioned stimulus

conditioning

generally, learning in which certain experiences make certain behaviors more or less likely; there are two forms of this

conduction deafness

one type of hearing impairment caused by mechanical problems in the ear structures

cones

neurons in the retina that are responsible for color vision

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports one's preconceptions

confounding variable

extraneous factor that interferes with the action of the independent variable on the dependent variable

consciousness

one's awareness of one's environment and oneself.

control group

subjects in an experiment who do not receive application of the independent variable but are measured nonetheless for the dependent variable

cornea

the transparent outer covering of the eye

corpus callosum

the fibers that connect the right and left hemispheres, enabling them to communicate

correlation

the degree of relationship between two variables

correlation coefficient

a positive one near 1.0 indicates two variable are positively related; a negative number indicates a negative relationship; zero indicates no relationship

cross-sectional

type of study that measures a variable across several age groups at the same time

debriefing

giving participants in a research study a complete explanation of the study after the study is completed

delta waves

largest brain waves, associated with deep, dreamless sleep

dendrite

a branch off the cell body of a neuron that receives new information from other neurons

dependent variable

the variable that the experimenter measures at the end of the experiment

depth perception

an ability that we exercise by using both monocular and binocular cues

difference threshold

also called the jnd; smallest distinction between two stimuli that can consistently be detected

dopamine

a neurotransmitter that is associated with Parkinson's disease (too little of it) and schizophrenia (too much of it)

double blind

this term describes an experiment in which neither the subjects nor the experimenter knows whether a subject is a member of the experimental group or the control group

eardrum

also called the tympanic membrane

echoic

term that describes memory of sounds

EEG

initials of a method of representation of brain waves

egocentrism

in a toddler, the belief that others perceive the world in the same way that he or she does

embryo

early stage of human development, when cells have begun to differentiate

endorphins

neurotransmitters that give one a feeling of well-being, euphoria or eliminate pain

experiment

form of scientific investigation in which one variable is tested to determine its effect on another; establishes causation

experimental group

subjects in an experiment to whom the independent variable is administered

extinction

in classical conditioning, the process of eliminating the previously acquired association of the conditioned stimulus and conditioned response

false consensus

a belief that others share the same opinion about something, when actually most don't

feature detection

the ability of the brain to identify specific components of visual stimuli such as corners or edges

fetal alcohol syndrome

sometimes the result in a child of the mother's excessive drinking while pregnant, characterized by low birth weight, facial abnormalities, mental retardation

fetus

a stage in human development extending from about ten weeks after conception to birth

figure-ground

refers to our ability to distinguish foreground from background in visual images

fixed interval

describes the schedule of reinforcement wherein a worker receives a paycheck every Friday

fixed ratio

describes a schedule of reinforcement wherein a worker is paid for a certain sum for each product produced

flashbulb

term describes a vivid memory of a personally significant and emotional event

fluid

term describes a type of intelligence used to cope with novel situations and problems

crystallized

term describes a type of intelligence which applies cultural knowledge to solving problems

formal operations

One of Piaget's stages; includes the ability to use abstract thinking

fovea

the central focus area of the retina

frequency

theory of hearing which states that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the tone's frequency

functionalism

William James's school of thought that stressed the adaptive and survival value of behaviors

ganglion cells

their axons form the optic nerve

gestalt

German word for "whole", it refers to our tendency to perceive incomplete figures as complete

glial cell

this acts as a support system for neurons

heritability

the extent to which differences in a group of a characteristic is due to genetics, not environment

hindsight bias

the tendency, after an event occurs, to overestimate the likelihood that an event could have been predicted

hippocampus

limbic system component associated with memory

homeostasis

the steady, stable state that is the body's regulatory processes try to maintain

humanist

perspective in psychology that stresses the goodness of people and their possibility of reaching their fullest potential

hypothalamus

limbic system component that regulates hunger, body temperature and other functions

iconic

term that describes the memory of images

identity vs. role confusion

Erikson's stage during which teenagers and young adults search for and become their true selves

imprinting

evidence of critical period in some animals; they follow the first moving thing they see after hatching

independent variable

type of variable manipulated by the experimenter

individualist

culture in which the individual is valued more highly than the group

industry vs. inferiority

Erikson's stage between 6 and 11 years, when the child learns to be productive

information processing

humans accomplish this either in parallel (unconsciously) or in serial fashion (consciously)

informed consent

agreement to participate in psychology research, after being appraised of the dangers and benefits of the research