Myers Psychology 4e Unit 3

Unit 6 and 9 from 2e

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 14, 462)

zygote

the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 466)

embryo

the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 466)

fetus

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 466)

teratogens

(literally, "monster makers") agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 467)

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, signs include a small, out-of-proportion head and abnormal facial features. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 467)

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 264, 468)

maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 471)

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 356, 476)

schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 477)

assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 477)

accommodation

(2) in developmental psychology, adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 477)

sensorimotor stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 478)

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 478)

preoperational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to about 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 479)

conservation

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 479)

egocentrism

in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 479)

theory of mind

people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 480)

autism spectrum disorder (ASD)

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 481)

concrete operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 483)

formal operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 483)

stranger anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 488)

attachment

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 488)

critical period

an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 489)

imprinting

the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during an early life critical period. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 489)

temperament

a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 490)

basic trust

according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 492)

self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?" (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 495, 572)

gender

the socially constructed roles and characteristics by which a culture defines male and female. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 500)

aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 501, 789)

gender role

a set of expected behaviors for males or for females. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 503)

role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 503, 758)

gender identity

our sense of being male or female. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 504)

social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 504)

gender typing

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 504)

transgender

an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 505)

adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 513)

identity

our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 519)

social identity

the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 519)

intimacy

in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 521)

emerging adulthood

for some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to mid-twenties, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 523)

X chromosome

the sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two X chromosomes; males have one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 526)

Y chromosome

the sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 526)

testosterone

the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 408, 526)

puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 527)

primary sex characteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 527)

secondary sex characteristics

nonreproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 527)

menarche

the first menstrual period. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 527)

AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome)

a life-threatening, sexually transmitted infection caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). AIDS depletes the immune system, leaving the person vulnerable to infections. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 529)

sexual orientation

an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation), the other sex (heterosexual orientation), or both sexes (bisexual orientation). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 531)

menopause

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 540)

cross-sectional study

a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 543)

longitudinal study

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 543)

social clock

the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 544)

learning

the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 263)

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 264, 468)

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).(Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 264)

stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a response. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 264)

cognitive learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 265)

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 266)

behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 6, 266)

neutral stimulus (NS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 266)

unconditioned response (UR)

in classical conditioning, an un-learned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 267)

unconditioned stimulus (US)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response (UR). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 267)

conditioned response (CR)

in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 268)

conditioned stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 268)

acquisition

in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 268)

higher-order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 268)

extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 269)

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 269)

generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 269)

discrimination

(1) in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 270)

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 275)

law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 275)

operant chamber

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 276)

reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 276)

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 276)

discriminative stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 277)

positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 277)

negative reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: Negative reinforcement is not punishment.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 278)

primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 278)

conditioned reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 278)

reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 279)

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 279)

partial (intermittent) reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 279)

fixed-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 279)

variable-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 280)

fixed-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 280)

variable-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 280)

punishment

an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 281)

biofeedback

a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 289)

respondent behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 289)

operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 289)

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 297)

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 297)

insight

a sudden realization of a problem's solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 297, 361)

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 297)

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 298)

coping

alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 298)

problem-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress directly—by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 298)