British Empire: The Birth of British Australia, 1788-1829

What impact did the loss of the American war of Independence have on Britain?

1. The resignation of Lord North (PM) and the formation of a coalition government.

2. By 1783, the national debt was £232 million.

3. In the short-term, Britain's trade was disrupted both with its European neighbors and with the colonists.

4. There was no political consequences in GB, no revolution and the power remained in the hands of the landed gentry.

5. Defeat did not lead to a prolonged recession and Britain's population continued to grow (always a sign of optimism).

6. By 1785, Britain's trade with its former colonies had reached pre-war levels.

7. The loss of the American colonies led to some changes in how Britain treated it’s other main colony (Ireland).

8. In the long-term, the loss of America did not curtail new imperial adventures or dent the self-confidence of the British.

1642 - Abel Tasman (Dutch) gives his name to Tasmania. The British rename this Van Dieman’s Land (after the man who sponsored the voyage)

Why did the British chose to establish a penal colony at Botany Bay?

• Penal Crisis in Britain due to mass imprisonment but no space in prison

• Urbanisation annd slum poverty resulted in more crime and imprisonments

• Captain Cooke’s expedition made him and his peers find Australia, reasons for starting settlements such as pine tree and flax growing

Overcrowded prisons:

- Urbanisation and slum poverty had led them to an increase in crime

- Less use of death penalty

- Frigates moored in the Thames

Economic:

- Trade with Asia and the East

Geographical location:

- East is Norfolk Island = Flax + Pine Trees

• Captain Cooke suggested Botany Bay

Political:

• Captain Phillip established political system

When did the ‘First Fleet’ arrive?

The fleet of 11 ships (two naval escorts, six convict transports, three store ships) departed Portsmouth on May 13, 1787. The 15,000-mile, eight-month journey was a masterclass in 18th-century logistics, essential for keeping over 1,400 convicts, marines, and sailors alive.

On the final leg, Phillip demonstrated tactical command by sailing ahead with the fastest ships to prepare the site, arriving at Botany Bay on January 18, 1788.

Botany Bay was quickly assessed by Phillip as wholly unsuitable:

• It offered poor anchorage, exposed to easterly winds.

• The soil was sandy and infertile.

• A reliable source of fresh water was lacking.

Phillip led a small scouting party north and discovered Sydney Cove, which he described as "the finest harbour in the world."

On January 26, 1788, the fleet anchored in Sydney Cove, Port Jackson. The British flag was raised, and the colony was formally proclaimed.

What was the impact on Aboriginals?  

• Cooke justified settling on the land by “claiming consent of the natives“ and claiming Australia as Terra Nullis (Nobody’s Land)

• In general, Governor Phillip’s attitude toward the aboriginals was benevolent as he believed they were treated with some protection laws as settlers and described peaceful negotiations and existence

Why is Governor Arthur Phillip significant?

Role in first fleet:

• Responsible for successful journey, was appointed and served as commander
  

• In first few months of settlement, Phillips revisited Botany Bay several times but saw not many resources, and so moved to Port Jackson where he founded the settlement that beacame Sydney. Sydney became the first Permanent Colony in Australia
  

Survival of the Colony
-The early years of the settlement was difficult as there was food shortages, disease and poor soil for farming. But Phillips Leadership and strict rationing. prevented famine and maintained onder

-He enforced discipline but also treated convicts fairly, gving them opportunities to work for freedom

Governance Style:

• Ruled with authority and fairness, maintaining strict control when necessary but was guided by Enlightenment ideals of justice and equality

• Believed convicts could be reformed by hard work and fair treatment.
  

Relations with Indigenous Australians/Aboriginals:

-Aimed to establish peaceful relations, believing coexistence was possible, He belived they shouldn't be harmed and tried to learn their culture and language

How successful was the initial settlement of Australia?

Who was Joseph Banks?

Botanist who accompanied Cook

Why was Banks suggestion of Botany Bay a surprising one? 

Lack of fresh water and soil unsuitable for cultivation.

What problems did the first fleet face in Sydney Cove?

Lack of livestock, no ploughs, thin soil, poor supplies

What problems did Philips face when forming a working society?

Subsistence, control of convicts, adequate shelter and housing, smooth relations with the aboriginal people, reform of the convicts.

What did Philips do to ensure the survival of the first fleet?

Allocated work based on skill-set, offered incentives to serving officers who offered to stay, strict discipline, even handed exercise of powers

Why was the first settlement able to survive?

Preparations for the journey

Establishing a second colony at Norfolk Island

Phillips control of food supplies

Relocation to better farmland

How was the Second Fleet different to the first?

The Second Fleet consisted of six ships - four transport ships and two store ships which arrived in Sydney Cove in 1790.

Three of the transport ships carried mostly male convicts and the other transport ship, The Lady Juliana, only carried women. The Lady Juliana was the first all-female transport ship and the female population of Sydney more than doubled when it arrived.

The convicts on all the ships were mistreated, rations were poor and sickness rife. Of the approximate 1250 male convicts, over 25% died en route to NSW (in comparison to just 2.8% of those on the First Fleet) and many more died within a year of reaching Sydney.

Almost half of the convicts who arrived in Sydney required immediate hospitalisation and about 80 died within three weeks of arrival.

How was the Second Fleet different to the first? P 91-92

The Lady Juliana (1790) brought much-needed supplies and fresh provisions to the struggling colony, which had faced starvation after poor harvests. It also brought female convicts, helping balance the gender ratio and boost morale among settlers.

Conditions:

The Second Fleet (1790) was managed by private contractors who prioritised profit over prisoner welfare.
Overcrowding, starvation, disease, and brutal treatment led to a mortality rate of around one-quarter of the convicts.

Colony’s survival:

Despite the appalling conditions, the Second Fleet brought a large number of new convicts who provided vital labour for farming and construction. 

The supplies on board helped replenish the colony’s dwindling resources and stabilised the population.

By the end of Phillip’s time as Governor (1792):

A functioning settlement at Sydney Cove with farms, livestock, and basic infrastructure.
A more stable food supply and growing self-sufficiency, supported by discipline and organisation under Phillip’s leadership.

What changed after the second fleet?

Government oversight increased, with stricter regulation of contractors and improved conditions aboard ships. Better food, hygiene, and medical care were introduced to prevent further loss of life and ensure convicts arrived healthy enough to work.
Why were the Irish prisoners an important group in the settlement?

Many Irish convicts arrived after the 1798 rebellion and brought agricultural skills useful for farming. Their strong community ties and Catholic faith influenced social and cultural life in the colony, though some were viewed as politically troublesome.

How did the penal colonies inadvertently help to reform convicts?

Hard labour, discipline, and the promise of land or freedom encouraged convicts to adopt productive habits. 

The colony’s need for skilled labour allowed many convicts to learn trades, integrate into society, and eventually build new lives as free settlers.

The Governers of New South Wales

Aside from the Crown itself, the office of Governor of New South Wales is the oldest constitutional office in Australia. 

Captain Arthur Phillip held the office as Governor of New South Wales on 7 February 1788, when the Colony of New South Wales, the first British settlement in Australia, was formally founded. 

The early colonial governors held an almost autocratic power due to the distance from and poor communications with Great Britain, until 1824 when the New South Wales Legislative Council, Australia's first legislative body, was appointed to advise the governor.

Who was Lachlan Macquarie?

Scottish

Army Officer and colonial administrator

5^th autocratic governor of New South Wales

Played a leading role in the social, economic and architectural development of NSW

His governorship brought an end to the RUM YEARS (a time when the New South Wales Corps dominated the colony, 1792-1809)

Played a leading role in developing Australia from a Penal Colony to a free state

Which two important developments did Macquarie’s tenure coincide with?

The British government sent the first shipment of sterling silver coins to the colony in 1812. This replaced promissory notes which previously existed.

The end of the Napoleonic wars in 1815 saw an increase in the number of prisoners sent to the colony; 75% were transported after 1815.

Gentry

Group whose wealth derives from agricultural land ownership.

Emancipist

A convict who had served his or her term and had been given a full pardon.

Currency

A child born to a convict

Exclusive

A free settler and their descendants

The 1808 rum rebellion – why were the New South Wales Corps removed and with what effect?

The New South Wales Corps was an army regiment formed in 1787 to replace the marines who accompanied the First Fleet.

The power of the Corps between Phillips and Hunter was complicated. In the hiatus between Governor Phillip's departure and Governor Hunter's amrival in 1795, the Corps had assumed significant fowers within the colony which they maintained until 180%. They were assigned up to be male connats and 3 female as farm labourers for their farms and had taken control of the import of alcohol into the colony wing their wages in London as credit with the merchant captains. The Governous increased influence in government.

The New South Wales Corks were able to undermine the Governors by Controlling the trade, especially in him and became known as the rum. economy'. They manipulated prices and controlling supplies, they could ignore or overrule the Governor's authority

The British government were convinced that the Corps were out of control wal due to the Rum Rebellion (1801). The Corps arrested Governor Bligh and took control of the colony. This was the only successful Coup in Australian history and Showed that the Corps he longer respected imperial authority

The British brought the NSW Corps under control as the Corps were recalled in England in 1804. Many officers retired or reassigned, effectively disbanding in 1816. Macquarie sent the 73rd Regiment a foot, a new professional unit restore order and replace the influence of the Corps.
to

‘Lachlan Macquarie made a very positive contribution to the development of the state of New South Wales in the years 1809–21.’ 

Rehabilitation of prisoners

• Macquarie believed connects could be reformed and become respectable citizens

• Encouraged emancipation by giving land, tickets for leave and positions of trust to ex-convicts who showed good behaviour

• Promoted Social mobility, helped build more stable amd self-sufficient colonial society by intergrating reformed covicts.

Rehabilitation of prisoners - Removal of some Prisoners to Tasmania

• The exclusives' resented Macquarie’s social policies

• Critics claimed he was too sympathetic to convicts and encouraged discipline
  

• Later governors reverted or weakened many of his emancipist policies

The convict experience - Skilled Labourers

• Improved living conditions for establishing hospitals, barracks and infastructure that improved quality of life

• Used convict labour for public works, gave prisoners purposeful employment and reduced idles

• Emphasised rewards for good conduct, not just punishment

The convict experience - Women

• Punisments such as flogging and hard labour remained common

• Many convicts were overworked and harshley treated, especially in road and construction gangs

• Emancipists benefited, but newly arrived convicts still faced tough conditions

• Women convicts/people were abused by men or other convicts

The building of Macquarie Towns

Land grants and the development up the Hawkesbury River (P.97)

• Originally it was thought that convicts would serve their term and then be freed, and that aboriginals would serve as a workforce for the colony.

• However, Phillips original instructions had included the provision of land grants for freed convicts, and because of the sheer distance involved between Australia and home, many freed convicts did stay in Australia.

• The original land grants made to convicts were made at Paramatta and Rose Hill.

• The first land grants in Hawkesbury, 65km north-west of Sydney were made as early as 1794, and between 1800 and 1809, there was slowly expanding settlement in the area.

• The land near the Hawkesbury River was fertile and essential to feed the ever-growing population of Sydney and received strong support from Macquarie who founded 5 towns in the Hawkesbury region between 1810-1811. Windsor, Richmond, Pitt town, Wilberforce and Castlereagh.

• The development of these towns was often at the expense of the local aboriginal people. 

What was life like before the arrival of the British?

• Aboriginal people lived according to efficient laws and ways of interacting with the environment to meet their needs.

• Aboriginal peoples lived in tribes and were nomadic. They moved from place to place in search of food and water. For food, Aboriginal people caught fish and shellfish from the sea and rivers, hunted kangaroos, possums and birds, collected plants or caught lizards. 

• They used wood, bone and shells to make tools and weapons. When the natural resources of an area began to run low, Aboriginal people moved on to the next place. They did not farm the land, plant or harvest crops or herd animals

• When British settlers arrived, there were 500,000 - 750,000 to possibly 1 Million Aboriginals

• Captain Cooke was ordered to claim land for the King and claim the land under Tera Nullis (No Man’s Land)

How did Governor Phillip treat aboriginals?

• Initially, the European explorers had reasonably friendly relations with the Aboriginal people. Governor Phillip always encouraged the new settlers to treat Aboriginal people fairly. Phillip traded items such as axes and cloth with Aboriginal people in exchange for food and water.

• The relationship became hostile when Aboriginal people realised that the colonists would seriously disturb their lives. The settlers took away land, natural food resources and the order of a nomadic life from Aborigines. Between 1790 and 1810, clan people of the Eora group in the Sydney area, led by Pemulwuy of the Bidjigal clan, undertook a series of attacks against the English colonists.

How did Governor Macquarie treat aboriginals?

• When Macquarie became governor in 1810, the clashes between the settlers and Aboriginal people increased. Governor Macquarie believed that the best way to treat Aboriginal people was to 'civilise' them. That meant replacing the traditional Aboriginal way of life with European ways.

• Macquarie tried to send Aboriginal children to school but many left or returned to their tribes after a short time. Macquarie tried to create a settlement for Aboriginal people by teaching them farming and building techniques. His attempts failed because Aboriginal people did not want to become farmers. After all his failures, Macquarie then made laws to place Aboriginal people under British control. Under these laws it was permitted to shoot Aboriginal people if they resisted.

Genocide

‘The deliberate killing of a large group of people, especially those of a particular nation or ethnic group’.

What is the statistical evidence of genocide?

• Australian Aborigines suffered Genocide at the hands of the European invaders in the 19th and 20th centuries. 

• The Indigenous population dropped from about 1 million to 0.1 million in the first century after the invasion in 1788, mainly through violence, dispossession, deprivation and introduced disease. 

• The last massacres of Aborigines occurred in the 1920s. Throughout much of the 20th century there was a policy of forcibly removing Aboriginal children from their mothers, a systematic genocidal policy involving the removal of perhaps 100,000 children. This practice ended in the 1970s.

How far do you agree that the British settlement of Australia in the years 1788–1829 was a disaster for the Aborigine population?

• Population of Aboriginal People and British arrival

• The Eora of New South wales

• Smallpox

• Aboriginal genocide in Van Diemen’s Land

• Population of Aboriginal People and British arrival

• Aboriginals have lived in Australia for at least 50,000 years, according to carbon dating
  

• Ice barrers delayed settlement in some regions like Tasmania and South-eastern Australia until after the last Ice Age
  

• Aboriginal civilisation was built around hunting, not farming, they lived in harmony with the land through the spiritual system known as the Dreaming
  

• They had complex languages, Social systems and survival skills, but limited technilogical development (No wheel, Aboroyonals From Tasmania had no fire)

• Aboriginals Crafted tools, fishing materials and canoes, but didn't cultrate crops

• Estimated population at British amount 300,000 - 1,000,000 people

- Governor Phillip's early estimate suggested very low population density (around 3 people per square mile on the NSW (east)

- British Settlers viewed Aboriginals as "primitive" and non-human contributing to later mistreatment and displacement
British Arrival,

-Captain Cook claimed Australia as terra nullius ("nobody's land") ignoring orders to obtain Aboriginal consent

- The claim was based on the judgement that Aboriginal people didn't "use" the land through Cultivation, a European Standard

- Early British Settlers Shaved the beliefs that Aboriginals were Savages, justifying harsh actions and dispossession.

- This mindset laid the foundation for widespread destruction of Aboriginal culture, land and population, seen clearly imater events such as the Tasmanian Genocide.

• The Eora of New South wales

• About 2,000 Eora People lived in the area where the First Fleet Settled on 1788.
  

• Initial meetings had moments of friendliness but were marked by mutual misunderstanding.

• Although Phillip ordered convicts not to steal from the Eora, these instructions were ignored, leading to theft, retaliation and violence

• Attempts by Phillip to demonstrate British justice were misunderstood by the Eora Showing deep cultural differences

Smallpox

• In 1789, a Smallpox epidemic devastated the Coastal Aboriginal population, killing by 50% of more

• Some Clans, such as the Cadigal, were almost wiped out (only 3 survivors from an estimated So-to people)
  

• Origin of epidemic is debated to:

• Possible British bidoxical transmission (vials carried for incolation)

•Makassan Sailors from the Foost north

• Contaminated goods from the First Fleet

• Misidentified severe chicken pox

• Phillip ruled out deliberate British release and remained unsure of source
  

• Even after the epidemic, conflicts continued as settlers expanded and restricted Aboriginal access to fishing grounds
  
  

• Despite Phillip's generally moderate approach (eg, resusing reposals after being Speared), later govenors also used punitive expeditions, contributing to the collapse of the Eora population
  

• Aboriginal genocide in Van Diemen’s Land

• Before Settlement in 1801, Tasmania had an estimated 3000-4000 Aboriginals
  

• Diseases such as venereal infections and viruses introduced by Whalers and settlers Significantly weakened the population.

• As settlers expanded inland for Sheep farming, Aboriginals were hunted, poisoned, starved and displaced

• Violence in Tasmania was extreme because:
  

+ Survival of early colonies depended on Kangaroo hunting

+ Guns were given to convicts, creating violent "bushmen" hostile to Aboriginal

+ Authorities rarely controlled settler brutality
Sheep farming boomed rapidly (436,256 sheep by 1827), increasing conflict over land and escalating violence,

• Retaliatory Aboriginal attacks led to widespread settler fear and calls for harsh measures

• In 1828, Govenor Arthur declared martial law, aiming to force Aboriginals into "Settled districts" despite them being unable to read such proclamations
  

• The relocation policy had failed, and by 1876, the last Tasmanian Aboriginal (in the direct line of those communities) had died.
  

• These events are widely regarded by many historians as a case of genocide due to systematic destruction of people through disease, violence and toned removal

What was the ‘Second branch’ of settlement in 1803?

• There were two major convict colonies: New South Wales (1788-1840) and Van Diemen’s Land (later Tasmania, 1803-1853).

• Eventually, Swan River (Western Australia) would become a third penal colony when the failing settlement requested an injection of convict labourers (1850-1868). 

• Van Diemen’s Land operated as an adjudant part of the main settlement until 1824; although main governors there could operate semi-independently from Sydney due to the time it took for orders to be communicated

Examples of Expansion for Australia

Blue Mountains

Western Australia

Political development

The extent of colonial control

Blue Mountains

The first crossing took place in 1813 after a period of drought in search of pastures for the wool industry.

A successful expedition led by aboriginal. The report to government was that there was enough land to support for the next 30 years.

Convict labour built a road that was completed by 1814.

By 1818 the push further west founded new land. 1824 Australian Agricultural Company granted more land for further development.

The cheap labour source (convicts and aboriginals on a 7 year contract) which makes it economically viable.

Western Australia

The first settlements in 1826 were established to stop the French settlers from taking that land. This is also open trade routes with China, India and the Islands surrounding.

1826 also marks the point at which military outposts are set up.

Free settlers were sent with land grants in 1828. By 1831 1500, of the 10,000 had survived due to famine.

This marks the shift in view of Australia as a penal colony.

Political development

Transformed by Macquarie who turned it from a penal colony into a colony of Britain.

The size of the free population and increased communication with London led to greater scrutiny.

The downfall of Macquarie was that he appointed ex-convicts, and people in London did not see NSW as a deterrent.

Bigge’s inquiry came to the conclusion that convict labour should be assigned to sheep farms, and to cease land grants and early leave. Positions of authority should not be given to emancipists. 

The extent of colonial control

The justice system became separate from the governor and a Supreme Court was established. This meant the penal colony was becoming more democratic.

Van Diemen’s land was to separate as its own colony with its own system of government. 

By 1829 the unlimited powers of governors had been curtailed by London.

How did convict settlements develop over time?

New South Wales (NSW)

Van Diemen’s Land (Tasmania)

Smaller NSW Convict Sites

Secondary Punishment Settlements

Penal Experiments

South Australia

New South Wales (NSW)

Information

- First Fleet arrived 1788.

- Botany Bay abandoned; colony moved to Port Jackson/Sydney Cove (26 Jan).

- Norfolk Island established early for strategic and food-supply reasons.

Significance

- Birthplace of convict Australia.

- Early struggles (famine) shaped later expansion.

- Norfolk Island became a key support settlement.

Van Diemen’s Land (Tasmania)

Information

- Settlements at Hobart (1804) and Launceston.

- Regular convict arrivals from 1818.

- Own Lieutenant Governor from 1813.

Significance

- Became the second major convict colony.

- Increasing autonomy showed colonial growth.

Smaller NSW Convict Sites

Information

- NSW originally included modern QLD & VIC.

- Moreton Bay (Brisbane) and Port Phillip (Melbourne from 1835).

- Port Phillip received convicts via Sydney and “Exiles” (1846–50).

Significance

- Expansion inland/along the coast.

- Shows transportation adapted over time (e.g., Exile system).

Secondary Punishment Settlements

Information

- For reoffending convicts within the colonies.

- Sites included: Norfolk Island (from 1825), Newcastle, Port Macquarie, Macquarie Harbour, Maria Island, Port Arthur (from 1830).

Significance

- Demonstrates harsher punishment regime.

- Port Arthur became the symbol of strict discipline and penal innovation.

Penal Experiments

Information

- Point Puer: first juvenile reformatory for boys at Port Arthur.

Significance

- Shows emergence of rehabilitation ideas and early juvenile justice reform.

South Australia

Information

- Founded 1834 as a non-convict colony.

- Influenced by colonisation theories of Edward Gibbon Wakefield (developed while imprisoned).

Significance

- Contrasts sharply with penal colonies.

- Shows diversity in methods of Australian settlement.