Neuroscience & Behavior

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65 Terms

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Neurons

Basic functional units of the nervous system

Generate electrical signals called action potentials, which allow them to quickly transmit information over long distances

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Glial cells (glia)

Maintain homeostasis, support, nourish and protect neurons by cleaning out plaque & toxins in the brain during sleep (waste management)

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Cell body (soma)

The cell's life support center, contains nucleus

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Axon hillock

Cone shaped region of an axon where it joins the cell body

Site of summation- controls the firing of the neuron. If the signal exceeds a certain threshold, the action potential will be triggered

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Nodes of Ranvier

Gaps in the myelin sheath along the axons; they contain sodium and potassium ion channels, allowing the action potential to travel quickly down the axon by jumping from one node to the next

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Dendrites

Receive messages from other cells

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Axon

Passes messages away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands

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Neural impulse

Electrical signal traveling down the axon

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Myelin sheath

Covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses

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Terminal branches of axon

Form junctions with other cells

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Terminal buttons

End of axon, filled with neurotransmitters that are sent across the synapse

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Sensory (afferent) neurons

Neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

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Interneurons

Only in the central nervous system (brain, spinal cord), relays information to motor neurons

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Motor (efferent) neurons

Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

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Resting potential

Neuron at rest, there are relatively more sodium ions outside the neuron and more potassium ions inside that neuron (-70mV)

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Action potential

Na+ in (depolarization) --> difference between inside and outside becomes positive --> K+ out (repolarization) --> hyperpolarization (extra negative) --> back to resting state

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Refractory period

After a neuron fires. Neuron cannot fire because it is resetting itself to its original resting potential state.

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Excitatory neurotransmitters

Cause the postsynaptic cell to depolarize, increasing the likelihood of an action potential (endorphins)

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Inhibitory neurotransmitters

Cause the postsynaptic cell to hyperpolarize, decreasing the likelihood of an action potential (GABA)

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Reuptake

Neurotransmitters are absorbed back into the presynaptic neuron

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Acetylcholine (ACh)

Enables voluntary muscle control and memory

Deficit: Alzheimer's

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Dopamine

Influences movement, attention/alertness, rewards/pleasure (related to addictions)

Excess: Schizophrenia

Deficit: Parkinson's disease

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Serotonin

Mood regulation

Deficit: anxiety disorders like OCD, eating disorders

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Epinephrine

"Fight or flight" response (increased heart rate, circulation, respiration)

Alertness/arousal

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Norepinephrine

Slows down appetite and digestion during fight or flight

Excess: mania

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GABA

Major inhibitory neurotransmitter - inhibits excitation/anxiety

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Endorphins

Pain relief and feelings of pleasure, stress reduction, "natural opiates"

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Glutamate

Major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory, cognition, mood regulation

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Agonist

A chemical that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter (excitatory)

Increases production/release of neurotransmitter or blocks reuptake in the synapse

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Antagonist

A chemical that opposes the action of a neurotransmitter (inhibitory)

Decreases a neurotransmitter's action by blocking production or release

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Hindbrain

Basic functions: includes the brain stem connects the brain to the spinal cord and coordinates many vital functions, such as breathing and heartbeat (pons, cerebellum, medulla)

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Midbrain

Arousal, movement, orientation, motivation: Controls many important functions such as the visual and auditory systems as well as eye movement. Relay station for central nervous system (forebrain --> spinal cord)

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Forebrain

Complex functions: cerebral cortex allows higher mental function, 4 lobes with association areas that interpret information registered from the cortex

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Frontal lobe

Planning, judgment, memory, reasoning, abstract thinking, movement

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Parietal lobe

Information about touch (sensory cortex)

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Occipital lobe

Visual processing (visual cortex)

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Temporal lobe

Hearing (auditory cortex) and language

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Motor cortex

Area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

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Somatosensory cortex

Area at the front of the parietal lobes that is associated with the ability to perceive touch & pressure

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Cerebellum

Movement, balance, fine motor skills, coordination

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Brainstem

Top of spinal cord, consists of medulla and pons

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Spinal cord

Consists of nerves that carry incoming and outgoing messages between the brain and the rest of the body

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Broca's area

Production of speech (frontal lobe)

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Wernicke's area

Comprehension of speech (temporal lobe)

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Limbic system

Group of forebrain structures involved in motivation, emotion, learning, + memory

Amygdala: emotional memory- fear, aggression, strong emotional response

Hippocampus: formation of explicit memories

Hypothalamus: controls hormone release by pituitary gland, maintains homeostasis, hunger, thirst, temperature

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Corpus callosum

Axon fibers connects two hemispheres

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Thalamus

Relays sensory information to the cerebral cortex (except smell)

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Pons

A brain structure that relays information from the cerebellum to the rest of the brain- sleep/wake cycle

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Medulla

Automatic functions: breathing and heart rate

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Reticular formation

Plays an important role in controlling arousal- mediating the overall level of consciousness (alertness/unconsciousness)

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Prefrontal cortex

Part of frontal lobe responsible for executive function, emotional regulation, decision making - last part to develop

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Divisions of the nervous system

Central and Peripheral

Somatic and Autonomic

Sympathetic and Parasympathetic

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Peripheral nervous system

The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

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Somatic nervous system

Transmits sensory information & controls voluntary movement, muscular reflex arc

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Autonomic nervous system

Self-regulating involuntary and automatic body functions (blood flow, heartbeat, digestion, breathing)

Sympathetic = fight or flight (arousal) (alert & ready for action)

Parasympathetic = rest and digest (calming)

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TMS (transcranial magnetic stimulation)

Short electromagnetic pulses are administered through a coil. Causes small electrical currents that stimulate nerve cells in the targeted brain region. Has been used study motor cortex or in extreme cases treat depression by stimulating nerve cells.

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Brain lateralization

Inclination for certain cognitive processes (language, formulating memories, and body movement) to be specialized to one hemisphere of the brain

Ex: Broca's and Wernicke's area both on left hemisphere (language control)

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Michael Gazzaniga

Split-brain research; understanding of functional lateralization in the brain; how the cerebral hemispheres communicate

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Phineas Gage

Railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury to the frontal lobe that dramatically changed his personality and behavior; case played a role in the development of the understanding of the localization of brain function

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Neuroimaging

The use of various techniques to provide pictures of the structure and function of the living brain

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Structural neuroimaging

Show anatomy--pictures of soft tissue. Reveals tumors, lesions, etc.

CT/CAT scan: fast and cost-effective but offers less precise visualization

MRI: very detailed and no exposure to radioactivity but longer and expensive

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Functional neuroimaging

PET scan: shows where glucose is present (hot spots)

- Helpful to study cause of seizures but expensive and radioactive

fMRI: creates activation maps through increase of blood flow to show mental processes

- Maps brain activity but long and expensive

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EEG

Non-invasive, records electrical patterns in the brain.

Helps diagnose conditions such as seizures, epilepsy, head injuries, dizziness, headaches, brain tumors and sleeping problems

Not an image/brain scan

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Endocrine system

Networks of glands that produce & secrete hormones.

Gland --> Hormone Released Into Bloodstream --> Effect

Hormones offer a slower message than neurotransmitters but offer a longer-lasting impact

- Fight or flight response controlled by hypothalamus

- Sympathetic Nervous System stimulates the adrenal glands triggering adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline

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Pituitary gland

Controlled by the hypothalamus, which tells your pituitary gland to start or stop making hormones