Racial, Ethnic, Cultural Stereotypes REFERENCES

Clark, 1969

stages of minority representation:

- non-recognition

- ridicule

- regulation (in positions of authority)

- respect

Tukachinsky et al. 2015

media minority representations across most viewed US TV shows across 20 years

likeability =

- black 76%

- latino 74%

- asian 47%

sexualisation =

- black 7%

- asian 11%

- latino 24%

Erigha, 2018

looked at film budgets across 11 year period

- 12 out of the 13 companies, white directors had significantly more money

Smith et al., 2014

Black directors casted black actors in 46% of roles, whereas non-black directors cast black actors in only 11%

Rada and Wulfemeyer, 2005

White players discussed and praised for mental skills such as hard work and intelligence, whereas Black players more likely to receive positive comments relating to physical attributes

Burgess et al., 2011

Minorities extremely underrepresented in videogame magazines, less frequent than aliens

minority males more likely to be portrayed as aggressive (76% compared to 66%)

The way violence was depicted varied - if White males were aggressive it was seen in socially sanctioned settings e,g, war

Minority violence was seen as illicit and purposeful

Poindexters et al., 2003

local newscasts in different cities

reporters: W = 73%, B = 16%, L = 3%

ethnic minorities rarely interviewed as a news source

Reid and Craig, 2021

newspaper coverage of protests - BLM protests more likely to be associated with threat and violence, not socially sanctioned

Collins, 2014

content analysis of Canadian local newspapers

- articles describe crimes against white victims with significantly more fearful language, minority victims blamed for their own victimisation

Dixon et al., 2003

TV network news

- white people overrepresented, black people underrepresented as victims of violent crimes and roles as police officers.

Shows patterns of who is being portrayed as the victims and saviours vs. the criminals

Entman, 2000

local TV news gave more coverage to white victims (stories 3 times longer)

- depicted black perpetrators more negatively (mug shots, restraints)

Martins et al., 2024

25 year update using 1200 US youth

- study found that perceptions of representation for White and Black characters have stayed the same

- think that representation of minorities has increased BUT only reflects how often characters are being shown and not improvements in HOW these characters are being portrayed

Mastro et al., (2009)

priming research - shown simulated TV news stories about crime, perpetrators race would change, after watching racial attitudes measured

- ethnicity of the suspect had a significant impact on attitudes towards black people in wider society - shows that a single broadcast can impact growth of stereotypes

Behm and Ta, 2014

Investigated white students frequency of video game play and attitudes

- those who spend more time playing video games had less favourable views of black people

Conzo et al., 2021

found that negative news about immigrants can biologically and behaviourally prime people for aggression and reduced cooperation

Esses et al., 2013

negative portrayals of immigrants have a dehumanising effect

Sawyer and Gampa, 2018

BLM movement 2009-2016

white people became less pro-white

Elias and Lemish, 2009

teenage immigrants - media as a cultural resource for empowerment. Provided information about their new society, enabled connections, maintain ties at home

Sommers et al., 2006

media coverage during hurricane Katrina

- many stories fabricated/exaggerated violent crimes in Black communities - this affected public perceptions of victims = delayed aid and support

Vittrup and Holden, 2011

exposing white children to educational videos and especially parent-child discussion about race showed improved out-group attitudes

Scharrer, 2015

reviewed research on media literacy

- concluded media literacy education can foster critical media engagement and reduce bias

Kavoori, 2007

evaluated a college media literacy course

- students demonstrated awareness of media bias and its affect on stereotypes

HOWEVER

when creating their own media, many still relied on stereotypical depictions - shows that critical awareness does not always translate into practice