PSYCH100 Exam 3

encoding

the process of retaining information and transferring it to memory

—includes visual codes, acoustic codes, and semantic or meaningful codes

storage

the retention of memories in the brain

—does not generate exact records

—errors and distortions can occur

retrieval

the recovery of stored information

—most common causes of retrieval failure are interference and stress

Atkinson-Shiffrin model

3 distinct stages that account for the length of time that information is held in memory (sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory)

sensory memory

temporary memory system related to your sensory system (lasts for a fraction of a second)

iconic

visual memory

eidetic memory

photographic memory, an unusually long persistence of a visual image

haptic

touch sensory memory

echoic

auditory sensory memory

short-term memory

a memory storage system that briefly holds a limited amount of information in awareness

—no longer than 30 seconds

working memory

actively retains and manipulates multiple pieces of temporary information from different sources

—highly active information processor

—complex cognition (understanding conversation and multiplication)

working memory capacity

George Miller’s magic number 7 (average working memory capacity is 7 plus or minus 2 aka between 5-9 items)

chunking

improves working memory and is organizing information into meaningful units

maintenance rehearsal

simply repeating the item over and over

elaborative rehearsal

encodes the information in more meaningful ways

—better than maintenance rehearsal

levels of processing theory

the more deeply we process information, the better we tend to remember it

—words encoded according to their meaning would be easier to remember than encoded according to their visual appearance

phonological loop

a type of short-term memory storage that holds verbal and auditory information

visuospatial sketch pad

a type of short-term memory storage that holds visual and spatial information such as directions and routes

central executive

a type of short-term memory storage that provides you with the right amount of attention to allow you to use both the phonological loop and visuospatial sketch pad at the same time

episodic buffer

a type of short-term memory storage that serves as a mechanism for combining information stored in long-term memory with active processing taking place in working memory

long-term memory

permanent memories

—information is not processed into LTM unless you rehearse it

serial position effect

we remember first and last items in a list rather than middle items

primacy effect

recall for first words on a list

—items stored in long-term memory

—rehearsed more —> more likely remembered

recency effect

recall for the last words on a list

—superior recall for the last words on a list

—working memory

declarative (explicit)

easy to “declare” or discuss verbally

—semantic, episodic, autobiographical

—memory for facts and events you can describe

nondeclarative (implicit)

more difficult to discuss; implicit because they affect our behavior in subconscious and effortless ways

—procedural, classical conditioning, priming

—memory for skills and habits you can’t describe

semantic memory

general knowledge in the form of word meanings and facts

episodic memory

a more personal account of past experiences

autobiographical memory

memory for facts and events about your life

—can be semantic, episodic, or both

procedural memory

information about how to carry out a skilled movement

—helps us automate performance (driving a car)

priming

changing our response to a stimulus because of pre-exposure to related stimuli

—advertising, real words, reaction time

conditioning

learning by association

spreading activation model

• People form their own organizations in memory based on personal experience

• Concepts differ in strength based on connections

inferences

Using schemas about objects and situations

schemas

• a set of expectations about objects and situations

  • Prof room: books, chair, etc.

retrieval cues

• anything that helps you access information in long-term memory

  • Most effective cues are those we generate ourselves

encoding specificity

• a match between cues during encoding and retrieval results in better retrieval

reconstruction

• Memories are not like video recordings; they are open to change and reconstruction

• Storytelling and retelling often simplify, emphasize, or exaggerate aspects of a memory

misinformation effect

• a person’s memory of an event becomes distorted after they are exposed to misleading information about it

• Ex.) Introducing “smashed” in a question caused participants to falsely remember it.

false memory

people can be misled into recalling events that didn’t happen

DRM study

• participants study a list of related words (bed, rest, tired, dream)

  • Sleep is falsely recalled/recognized even when not on the list

fuzzy trace theory

Gist memories – general idea, efficient, but can lead to false memories (long-term memory)

Verbatim memories – literal, detailed, accurate, resource-intensive (explicit and implicit memory)

flashbulb memories

• extremely detailed memories of major events 

  • Not always correct (9/11)

forgetting

• reduced ability to recall previously learned information

  • Has adaptive benefits:

    • Prioritizes important information

    • Suppresses less important memories

  • Causes of Forgetting:

    • Decay

    • Interference

    • blocking

decay

 a reduction in ability to retrieve rarely used information over time (“use it or lose it”)

ebbinghaus forgetting curve

• At first, forgetting is rapid; Later, forgetting declines

• Overcoming the forgetting curve: more time spent relearning, less we forget

interference

competition between newer and older information in the memory system prevents the recall of memories

proactive interference

older memories prevent recall of newer memories

—ex.) old partner’s name —> harder to recall new partner’s name

retroactive interference

newer memories prevent recall of older memories

—new phone number —> harder to recall old phone number

blocking

temporarily unable to remember something

tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

cannot immediately recall a word or a name you know, but you feel like retrieval is about to happen

—even with partial cues, you cannot retrieve the exact word

long-term potentiation

strengthening of synaptic connections make learning possible

—”neurons fire together, wire together”

consolidation

newly learned information becomes stable and long-lasting in memory

amnesia

unable to form and recall memories

retrograde amnesia

people lose the ability to access memories before a brain injury

anterograde amnesia

people lose the ability to form new memories after a brain injury

—Patient Henry Molaison (H.M.)

cognition

mental processes (thinking, reasoning, problem solving) that allow us to process and manipulate information to understand the world and achieve goals

thinking

actively working with mental representations (images, ideas, concepts) to plan, decide, and solve problems

mental images

representation of any sensory experience that is stored in memory and can be retrieved for use later

concepts

mental categories for classifying events, objects, and ideas on the basis of their common features

—mental frameworks to organize info, makes thinking efficient

prototypes

represent the best category formed by averaging all member of the category

exemplar

a specific member of a category used to represent the category

—advantages of exemplars include a better way to think about the variability of a category

problem

a situation in which a current state is separated from an ideal state by obstacles

—Well-defined problem: clear goal and answer

—Ill-defined problem: unclear goal and multiple answers (based on opinion)

using subgoals

a problem-solving strategy where big or long-term problems are easier to solve if broken into a set of subgoals

working backwards

a problem-solving strategy where starting from the goal state to the current state can help find a solution

analogies

a problem-solving strategy where you identify a previously solved problem that is similar to the current problem

insights

a problem-solving strategy when you suddenly realize the solution to your problem

restructuring

mentally representing the problem in a new way

—ex.) thinking outside the box

mental sets

an established way of thinking that has worked in the past but might not be the best way to solve the problem

functional fixedness

the tendency to perceive objects as limited to the customary functions they serve

confirmation bias

• tendency to stick with an initial hypothesis despite strong evidence to the contrary

illusory correlations

misperception that two events are related

hindsight bias

tendency to believe we could have predicted or known the outcome or after information becomes known

heuristic

a rule of thumb for solving problems or making decisions. 

– Do not guarantee a solution, but may help you make a decision quickly

availability heuristics

 events that are easy to think about are more likely

representative heuristics

stimuli that are similar to a prototype are more likely to fit a category than stimuli that are different from the prototype (making judgement based on resemblance)

language

a system for communicating thoughts and feelings using arbitrary signals

phonemes

basic units of sound

morphemes

• the  smallest units of meaning

  • Phonemes → morphemes → words → phrases

syntax

grammar

semantics

meaning of words

aphasia

the loss of ability to speak or understand languages

broca’s aphasia

affects the production of speech, speech is slow and laborious

wenicke’s aphasia

• affects comprehension, speech is rapid and fluent but virtually meaningless

Noam Chomsky

 we have inborn capacity to learn

Language Development:

• Prenatal exposure

• Social interaction enhances language learning

• Communication with a real speaker is the most effective

• Similar language developmental stages occur across languages

dyslexia

• reading difficulty despite typical intelligence and adequate instruction

  • Difficulty distinguishing speech sounds (m vs. n)

  • Caused by genetics and less activation in left hemisphere

multilinguism

• proficient in at least two languages

  • Cognitive benefits are debated

signed language

• Uses sight and movement instead of sound

• The left hemisphere processes sign language similarly to spoken language

intelligence

 capacity to think and reason clearly and to act purposefully and effectively in adapting to the environment and pursuing one’s goals

Alfred Binet intelligence test

measured mental age

stanford-binet test

• Used for children

• IQ= mental age/chronological age x 100

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

• Used for adults

• No longer rely on mental age, but performance is now measured against a statistically normal curve

culture fair

• IQ test is not biased by the test takers cultural and social background

general intelligence

Charles Spearman, single common factor that contributes to performance in any intellectual task

Raymond Cattell

intelligence consists of two types: fluid and crystallized

fluid intelligence (working memory)

• the ability to think quickly and flexibility in novel situations without needing previously learned knowledge

  • Peaks in young adulthood, then declines

crystallized intelligence (long-term memory)

• requires specific, learned knowledge (vocabulary or mathematics)

  • Remains stable throughout adulthood

Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence

Combination of analytical, creative, and practical intelligence

Gardner’s model of multiple intelligences

different types of intelligence that are independent of each other

spatial

thinking in terms of pictures and images