KNPE 261

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Motor Skill

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Task with specific goal, performed voluntarily, requiring body and/or limb movement, needs to be learned

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Components of a Motor Skill

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  • Perceiving relevant environmental features

    • Need to take in info from sensory receptors

    • Defining the goal positions and outcomes

  • Deciding what to do and the timing of the action

    • Planning and programming how to achieve that goal

  • Producing the muscular activity required to generate the movement goal

    • Sending the commands and adjusting the commands as needed

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258 Terms

1

Motor Skill

Task with specific goal, performed voluntarily, requiring body and/or limb movement, needs to be learned

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Components of a Motor Skill

  • Perceiving relevant environmental features

    • Need to take in info from sensory receptors

    • Defining the goal positions and outcomes

  • Deciding what to do and the timing of the action

    • Planning and programming how to achieve that goal

  • Producing the muscular activity required to generate the movement goal

    • Sending the commands and adjusting the commands as needed

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Discrete vs Serial vs Continuous

  • Discrete: Specific motions, defined start and end point (bat-swing, free throw, wrist shot)

  • Serial: Set of discrete movements strung together (gymnastics, typing, piano) 

  • Continuous: repetitive over a period of time, no defined start or end

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Open vs Closed Skills

  • Open skills: happen in highly unpredictable environments

    • Success influenced by

      • Perception of external stimuli

      • Adaptability

  • Closed skills: happen in more predictable environments

    • Success influenced by

      • Persistence and consistence

      • Planning and programming

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Fine vs Gross Motor Skills

  • Fine: smaller movements from smaller muscle groups in coordination (writing, sewing)

  • Gross: bigger movements from larger muscle groups in coordination (dancing, serving)

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What do we consider when measuring motor skills?

  • Objectivity: two tools can come up with the same measurement of performance. Dependent on the tool. One measure may be more objective than another.

  • Reliability: the same measuring tool, how likely it is that they will produce the same measurement on two separate occasions.

  • Validity: how well do our measurements translate to performance if we change the environment

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Constant Error (CE)

  • Used on a single trial

  • The amount and direction of bias away from the target

  • Measures accuracy

  • Useful for providing feedback about tendencies or bias

  • Gives us the magnitude of error

    • How far performance is from target

    • Can be computed in more than one axis

    • Sign gives the direction of the error

  • Mean CE is the average error in the response

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Variable Error (VE)

  • Computed by first summing the differences between the performance score and the person's own mean

  • Reflects the participant's variability or consistency

  • Variable error does NOT depend on whether the performer was close to the target

  • Variable error is not concerned with the target position

<ul><li><p>Computed by first summing the differences between the performance score and the person's own mean</p></li><li><p>Reflects the participant's variability or consistency</p></li><li><p>Variable error does NOT depend on whether the performer was close to the target</p></li><li><p>Variable error is not concerned with the target position</p></li></ul><p></p>
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Total Variability

  • Measure of "overall error"

  • Total variability accounts for of the bias and variability

    • Also known as Root Mean Square Error (RMSE)

  • Sum of the squared differences between the achieved position and the goal position

    • Similar to VE with reference to the target position

  • Measures consistency around the target values

<ul><li><p>Measure of "overall error"</p></li><li><p>Total variability accounts for of the bias and variability</p><ul><li><p>Also known as Root Mean Square Error (RMSE)</p></li></ul></li><li><p class="p1">Sum of the squared differences between the achieved position and the goal position</p><ul><li><p class="p1">Similar to VE with reference to the target position</p></li></ul></li><li><p class="p1">Measures consistency around the target values</p></li></ul><img src="https://knowt-user-attachments.s3.amazonaws.com/48dfbc45-7b4b-4b87-b06b-f6a497e842a1.png" data-width="25%" data-align="center"><p></p>
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Absolute Error (AE)

  • Absolute deviation between the performers movements and the target

    • Complex mathematical relationship between CE and VE

    • Not as clear as E

  • Used a lot in early research

  • You use the absolute value for xi-T before dividing it by the number of trials

  • You can cancel out bias when summarizing the whole group

  • Is just absolute value of CE

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Measuring Performance in a Continuous Task

  • Can compute the difference between performed trajectory and target trajectory

  • RMSE

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Biomech vs Motor Control

  • Biomechanics and rehabilitation is often concerned with the quality of movement

    • Examining loading, muscle activation patterns, joint reaction forces

    • Purpose: preventing injury, making movements more efficient

  • Motor control and learning is often concerned with errors and performance

    • Examining endpoint variables and strategies (kinematics)

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Characterizing Movement Features

  • Movements can be characterized by looking at kinematics

    • Concerned with motion rather than the forces that created that motion

  • Kinematic markers can be used to describe movements

    • Position information (where the limb is in space)

    • Velocity information (rate of change of position)

    • Acceleration (rate of change of velocity)

  • Temporal and temporal-kinematic variables are also used to describe movement

    • Reaction Time, Movement Time, Time to/after Kinematic Markers

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Why are Kinematics Useful?

  • Kinematics can give a researcher/ teacher/ coach detailed information about current performance and improvements in actions

  • Can provide detailed and understandable feedback to participants

  • Neuronal firing patterns reflect direction and speed of upcoming actions

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Kinematics in the Brain

  • Neuronal firing patterns in motor related areas in the brain predict the kinematics of movements

    • Posterior parietal cortex

    • Motor cortex

  • Speed of upcoming movements corresponds nicely with the firing of neurons in the pre motor cortex

  • Most neurons represent direction of movement but also velocity

  • Speed and direction are represented by areas associated with movement production in the brain

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Reaction Time

  • Reaction time (RT) was traditionally used as a proxy for cognitive function

  • RT is a measure of the time from the arrival of a stimulus to the beginning of the response

  • response Stimulus is unanticipated

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Breakdown of Reaction Time

  • Trial starts with a warning (wait for the gun fire)

  • Stimulus presented (gun fires)

  • Premotor RT - no muscle activity

  • Motor RT - Upon the stimuli being presented, when there is muscle activity but no overt movement

  • RT - time between premotor and motor RT

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Movement Time

  • Movement time is the time interval from the initiation of the response to the completion of the movement

    • Precision of units depends on the skill

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Response Time

  • Response Time = RT + MT

  • Different processes may be studied using RT and MT

    • Processes to initiate a movement

    • Processes to complete a movement

    • Different processes may underlie correcting a movement as well

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Correlation

  • Correlations measures both the direction and strength of a relationship

    • Correlation coefficient (R)

      • Number indicates —> Strength of relationship

      • Sign indicates —> Direction of the relationship

    • R2 measures the shared variance (can convert to a percentage by multiplying by 100)

  • Important to keep in mind that correlations can be spurious

  • Correlation does not always mean causation

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Regression

  • Regression allows to predict one variable from another

  • Simple regression fit a linear model to data that we have collected

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Attention and Motor Performance

  • An indirect way of measuring capability in a motor task is to measure performance on a dual cognitive task

    • Attention is a limited capacity resource

    • The less attention a task takes, the more the performer has mastered it

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Dual Cognitive Tasks

  • It is harder to do a dual cognitive task

    • Doing a skill while doing a cognitive task on top, is a good measure of how good someone is at performing the actual skill

    • Limiations to this

      • Few underlying changes

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Human Information Processing

  • Black box approach

    • Input --> Processing -- > Output

  • Motor behaviour takes a chronometric approach

    • Measure the timing of this input to output and infer the amount of processing that takes place

  • Many different information processing activities take place during the RT period

    • It is critical to have a well designed experiment to use RT as a measure of processing

    • We can infer that as RT becomes quicker, processing increases and vice versa

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Simple Reaction Time Tasks

  • A task that involves reacting to one stimulus

  • Fastest reaction times

  • Gives a measure of processing time

    • Correlated with age

    • Affected by fatigue, attention, sensory modality of the cue

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The Stages of Information Processing

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Parallel vs Serial Processing

  • Parallel processing

    • Overlapping processes

  • Serial processing

    • Processing in sequential steps

  • With regard to human information processing

    • Some steps can occur in parallel under certain conditions

    • Some steps must occur in sequence in certain conditions

<ul><li><p>Parallel processing</p><ul><li><p>Overlapping processes</p></li></ul></li><li><p>Serial processing</p><ul><li><p>Processing in sequential steps</p></li></ul></li><li><p>With regard to human information processing</p><ul><li><p>Some steps can occur in parallel under certain conditions</p></li><li><p>Some steps must occur in sequence in certain conditions</p></li></ul></li></ul><p></p>
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Stimulus identification

  • First the individual must perceive the stimulus

  • Involves stimulus detection and then identification

  • The stimulus must be sensed and processed

    • Processed until it contacts memory

      • Some memorized aspect of its relevance is aroused

  • There are many variables that can affect the stimulus identification stage

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Sensation and Perception

  • Sensation involves the activation of sensory receptors

    • Sensory receptors have a minimum amount of stimulation required to detect a stimulus

    • Can be affected by attention at both the behavioural and neural level

  • Perception involves interpreting those sensations

    • Involves the combination and integration of numerous sources of information to form a percept

  • We move from sensation to perception

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Stimulus Detection is affected by….

Stimulus clarity, stimulus intensity, predicability

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Response Selection

  • After the stimulus is detected, the actor must now decide what response to initiate

    • Move or not to move

    • Move high or move low

    • Block or cover

  • Experimentally, we can explain the relationship between the reaction time and the number of possible stimulus-response alternatives

    • Choice-RT: A reaction time task wherein the participant is presented with more than one possible stimulus and the required response is dependent on that stimulus

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Hicks Law

  • The time it takes to make a response is related to the number of stimulus response alternatives

  • Hick's Law was based on an experiment by Hick and Hyman

    • Presented an increasing number of stimulus-response pairs and measured RT

  • Choice RT increases nearly a constant amount (~150 ms) when S-R alternatives are doubled

    • Log-linear relationship

      • The relationship between the choice RT and the logarithm of the number of SR alternatives should be linear

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Bits of Information

  • Log2(N) = a bit of information

  • The amount of information required to reduce uncertainty by half

  • Least amount of binary decisions

  • Bit = Binary Digit

<ul><li><p>Log<sub>2</sub>(N) = a bit of information</p></li><li><p>The amount of information required to reduce uncertainty by half</p></li><li><p>Least amount of binary decisions</p></li><li><p>Bit = Binary Digit</p></li></ul><p></p>
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Interpreting Hick’s Law

  • What is the y-intercept (a) experimentally?

    • The reaction time when the number of stimulus responses (N) is equal to zero, simple reaction time

  • What is the slope (b) experimentally?

    • Amount of time added when you increase bits by one

<ul><li><p>What is the y-intercept (a) experimentally? </p><ul><li><p>The reaction time when the number of stimulus responses (N) is equal to zero, simple reaction time</p></li></ul></li><li><p class="p1">What is the slope (b) experimentally? </p><ul><li><p class="p1">Amount of time added when you increase bits by one</p></li></ul></li></ul><p></p>
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Go/ No-go tasks

Reacting to 1 stimulus, and not reacting to another

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Choice RT Tasks

  • Selecting the appropriate response for a given stimulus

  • Slowest reaction times

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Donder’s Subtractive Method

<p></p>
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Other Factors Affecting Response Selection

  • Although the number of S-R alternatives affects response selection, features of the S-R relationship could also have an impact

  • One prominent example is the stimulus-response compatibility

    • The mapping of the response to the action

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Simon Effect

  • Irrelevant spatial features have effects on reaction time (Simon, 1969)

    • Participants responded to auditory cues played in either the left ear or the right ear

  • Compared responses of spatially compatible trials versus incompatible trials

  • Has been replicated with numerous types of trials

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The Joint Simon Effect

  • Previous research has also suggested that we can co-represent actions

    • When two people perform the simon task, they perform similar to when performing a two-choice task.

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Response Programming

  • The transformation / translation of the action concept into the muscular actions that will achieve the goal

    • Sensorimotor transformations

    • Events occurring in response programming could be related to memory

    • Involves the preparation of relevant motor structures

  • The final set of processes that allow the individual to communicate with the environment

  • Programming of more complex movements

    requires more time

  • More complex S-R relationships take longer to program

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Movement Complexities

  • Accuracy requirement - the size of the goal

    • Speed-accuracy tradeoffs (Fitt's Law)

  • Movement components - how many individual movements

    • The number of "parts" of a movement can increase the initial programming time

      • The time to say the first word increased with the number of words

    • Time between components is important

      • With a long pause in between movement components RTs did not increase

  • Movement duration - how much time from the beginning to the end

    • This might be the major variable - how can we test this?

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Programming a Trajectory

  • Proponents of sensory-coding theories of motor behaviour argue that we plan a point-to-point visual trajectory

  • Neural activation patterns in motor areas represent spatial goals in a visual reference frame

    • Criticisms to this

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Motor programming theory

  • Motor programs: a prestructured set of movement commands that defines the essential details of a skilled action, with minimal (or no) involvement of sensory feedback

    • Muscles to use

    • Sequence of muscle activations

    • Force, timing and duration of muscle contractions

  • During response programming - the motor program to achieve the action is specified

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Criticism of Motor Programs

  • Storage problem: Imagine if every movement was a distinct motor program - it would require much more space to store them all

  • Degrees of freedom problem: There are too many degrees of freedom to control (to many moving parts)

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Dynamical Systems Theory

  • Stereotypes similarities of movement patterns are not represented in motor programs but emerge naturally due to complex mechanics

  • Solves the DoF problem, and explains expertise and freezing the right DoFs so we seek a minimal solution

  • Biomechanics and rehabilitation people like this theory a lot

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Anticipation

  • In information processing - anticipation means the removal / reduction of the response selection stage

  • There are different types of anticipation

    • Temporal Anticipation - when anticipation

    • Spatial Anticipation - what/where anticipation

  • Precuing any variables leads to a decrease in RT and response selection and an increase in programming

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How can we study anticipation

  • Anticipation can be studied by examining the startle response

  • A startling tone has been shown to trigger a prepared movement at short latency

  • Startle is thought to act as a subcortical trigger for prepared movements

    • Startle is thought to release the correct response

    • Greatest response to startle was when there was only one stimulus and one response

  • To elicit greater anticipation only have one stimulus and one response

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Senses

  • The 5 senses:

    • Vision, touch, smell, taste, hearing

  • Other important senses:

    • Sense of balance (equilibrioception) - argued that it is part of proprioception

    • Sense of body position (proprioception)

      • Often paired with tactile (touch senses)

    • Sense of temperature (thermoception)

    • Pain sense (nociception)

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Sensory Information and Motor Control

  • Sensory information is used for both movement planning (feedforward) and movement control (feedback)

  • The use of sensory feedback to modify motor commands is referred to as closed-loop control

    • System receives instructions (input)

    • The goal is defined (reference mechanism)

    • Executive level relays instructions to achieve the goal

    • Effector level enacts the instructions that are relayed

      • Produces an output

  • Sensors in the environment produce feedback

    • Feedback is compared to the goal

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Visual System - Receptors

  • Visual sensation begins at the eye
    Light from an object in the visual field is refracted and focused onto the retina

  • Photoreceptors: light sensitive cells line the back of the retina

    • Two main types of photoreceptors:

      • Rods (motion / detection)

        • More rods are in the periphery of the fovea

      • Cones (fine detail)

        • Centred around fovea

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Visual System - Central Processes

  • Visual information travels through the optic nerve, and various subcortical structures to the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN)

    • From the LGN in the thalamus, visual information is relayed to the primary visual cortex (V1)

  • Primary visual cortex is where visual features such as stimulus direction, stimulus speed, and object

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Visual Streams

  • From the V1, visual information can travel to one of two visual streams

  • Dorsal stream where visual information travels to the parietal areas

    • Known as the vision for action stream

    • Inputs from the full visual field

  • Ventral stream where visual information travels to the temporal lobe

    • Known as the vision for perception stream

    • Inputs from the LGN mainly from central vision

  • Evidence for the two streams comes from perception-action dissociation

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Evidence for the Dorsal and Ventral Streams

  • Perception scales to illusions, however grip aperture does not

    • Grip aperture is a measure of the distance between index and thumb when performing reaching movements

<ul><li><p>Perception scales to illusions, however grip aperture does not </p><ul><li><p>Grip aperture is a measure of the distance between index and thumb when performing reaching movements</p></li></ul></li></ul><p></p>
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Gunslinger Effect Experiment Findings

  • Most of the time, the person who draws their gun second wins. The reactor wins, not the initiator.

  • Replicated the gunslinger effect showing shorter time to peak acceleration for reacted movements

  • Target influenced distance travelled to peak deceleration - indicating an influence later in the movement trajectory

  • Results suggest that the ventral stream may be used more for limb target control and the dorsal stream used may be used more for planning

  • Contrasts with results that suggests ventral stream may be used for planning

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Vision’s effect on balance

  • Vision does have an effect on balance

    • Visual system indicates where your head and eyes are in space

  • Optic Flow: when we move our head, the angle the light rays hit the retina changes

    • The environment flows past us as our head and body move

      • This gives us crucial information about our position and the position of objects

  • Moving room experiments have found that children lose balance if the walls of the room shift

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Vision & Predicting Impact

  • The rate of change of the size of an object on the retina can indicate whether the object is coming toward you or going away from you

    • From this information we can estimate the time to contact (Tau)

      • Retinal image (A) increases as ball comes closer

  • Time to contact is directly proportional to the:

    • Size of the image (A) divided by the rate of change of the image (Ả) multiplied by a constant

      • This is true regardless of distance, size, or velocity

<ul><li><p>The rate of change of the size of an object on the retina can indicate whether the object is coming toward you or going away from you</p><ul><li><p>From this information we can estimate the time to contact (Tau)</p><ul><li><p>Retinal image (A) increases as ball comes closer</p></li></ul></li></ul></li><li><p>Time to contact is directly proportional to the:</p><ul><li><p>Size of the image (A) divided by the rate of change of the image (Ả) multiplied by a constant</p><ul><li><p class="p1">This is true regardless of distance, size, or velocity</p></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><p></p>
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Proprioception

  • Sensory information about the position of the body in space

    • Also known as kinesthesis or kinesthesia

  • Proprioception includes

    • Vestibular system

    • Sensory organs in the muscles and joints

    • Cutaneous receptors

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Vestibular system

  • The vestibular system is located in the inner ear

    • Otolith organs provide information about the orientation of the head with respect to gravity

      • Utricle and Saccule

        • Sense linear accelerations

  • Semicircular canals are three fluid-filled half-circles

    • These structures are in a position sense directions (aligned to the horizontal, sagittal, and frontal planes)

      • Can sense rotations

    • Thick fluid in the canals displace hair cells (mechanoreceptors)

  • The vestibular system is important for balance and orientation

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Vestibular-Vision Interactions

  • When we move our heads - our eyes stay stable due to vestibular-ocular reflexes

    • When our head moves in one direction - our eyes slowly move in the other direction

  • Alternating slow and fast movements are called nystagmus

    • Will stop if the head keeps rotating

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Dizzy Training

  • Use of spotting may help with overcoming dizzy feeling

    • Focus on a stable visual stimulus (keeping the head still)

  • Turning the head after the body has undergone motion - reduces the time the head is spinning

  • Training with spotting may shift sensory feedback use to more visual sources

    • May not improve dance performance in novices

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Muscle and Joint Receptors: Muscle Spindles

  • Muscle Spindles: provides information about muscle stretch

    • Located in the fleshy part of the muscle body

    • Oriented in line with the muscle fibre

      • When the muscle is stretched, the spindle is stretched

  • Comprised of intrafusal muscle fibers

    • Innervated by a la afferent fiber

      • Firing rate is related to length and rate in change in length

  • Spindle also connects to alpha motor neurons of the muscle

    • Basis of the stretch

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Golgi Tendon Organs

  • Golgi tendon organs (GTOs) are located at the muscle tendon junction

    • Highly sensitive to active muscle tension

      • Can respond to forces caused by less than 0.1 g

  • Each GTO is attached in series to small groups of muscle fibres (<25)

    • Only a few motor units represented by the innervated muscle fibres

  • Hypothesized to contribute less to overall position sense than muscle spindles

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Joint Receptors

  • Joint receptors are embedded in the joint capsule

    • Primarily located in the areas of the capsule that are stretched the most

  • Research into the activation of joint receptors have revealed that neural signals are strongest at the end ranges of the joint movement

  • Less involved in position sense than muscle spindles

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How Important is Proprioception

  • Proprioception plays a role in rapid-feedback based responses

    • Stretch reflex based responses to perturbations

      • Critical to both optimal movement control

  • Some models of motor control state that proprioception is used to plan distances and vision to plan direction

  • Other models of motor control suggest proprioception may be the key feedback based mechanism

    • Both the speed of processing and reflex circuitry make it possible.

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Open Loop

  • Open loop control is similar in initial design to closed loop control

    • There is an executive level and an effector level

      • The executive sends the motor program to the effectors, and the effector carries out the instructions without modification based on feedback

    • Open loop processes are not necessarily less complex than closed loop processes

      • A response is open loop when the response unfolds without feedback

      • A system is open loop if the system doesn't take feedback into account

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Feed-Forward Control

  • Although humans are capable of open-loop control, modern theories of movement control suggest we use sensory information for feedforward control

    • Feedforward control involves a signal that readies the system for the motor command

      • Readies the system for some input

  • The concept of feedforward control emerged from the study of eye movements (saccades)

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Efference Copy

  • A copy of the motor command that was sent to muscles is delivered to sensory regions in the brain

    • E.g. if you reach to tickle your own foot, an efference copy of the reaching movement is sent to your brain, preparing you to be tickled

      • This is why you can’t tickle yourself, because you are expecting it

  • The efference copy allows for the prediction of the action outcome and the sensory consequences of the action

    • Tells the sensory system what was 'ordered' by the motor system, readying the sensory system for feedback

    • Uses the predicted and actual sensory feedback to compute an error

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Error Detection and Efference

  • We can use active versus passive tasks

  • Participants are generally better at error estimate when they have efferent information

    • Proprioception may play more of a role than previously thought

  • People perform better when they prepare their own movement as opposed to being guided

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Forward Models and Motor Control

  • Forward models are used to establish predictions about the desired state

    • Produce predictions about the movements intended outcome and desired feedback

  • Establishes a reference of correctness for which to compare to based on sensory information

    • Forward models are used continuously throughout the movement to update the reference of correctness

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Outstanding Problems - Motor Programming

  • Storage problem - there is not enough room to store separate motor programs for each movement

  • Degrees of freedom problem - the system has two many independent states to control at the same time

  • Novelty problem - how do we learn new actions

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Computational Solution to Outstanding problems

  • To solve these problems, it was hypothesized that motor programs must be generalized

  • The motor program must resemble a function

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The Generalized Motor Program

  • Invariant or algorithmic features of the GMP

    • Relative timing - the timing of muscle activations relative to others

    • Relative force - the force of muscle activations relative to others

    • Sequence of events - the sequence of events

  • These components are in the function - they are not changed by the user

  • Think of motor input as a song on a turntable. You can make adjustments to volume, the speed and which speaker the song comes out of but the song plays nonetheless. Movement patterns are the same.

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Speed Accuracy Tradeoffs

  • When examining voluntary, goal-directed movements, there appears to be a relationship between speed and accuracy

    • Fast movements are less accurate

    • Accurate movements are slower

  • Dsecribed by Fitts’ Law

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Fitts’ Law

  • Increased ID = Increased MT

  • Linear relaationship

<ul><li><p>Increased ID = Increased MT</p></li><li><p>Linear relaationship</p></li></ul><p></p>
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Speed-Accuracy Open-loop movements

  • For open loop (no visual feedback) the effective target width can be determined by the amplitude (distance) and movement time

  • Schmidt’s Law

<ul><li><p>For open loop (no visual feedback) the effective target width can be determined by the amplitude (distance) and movement time</p></li><li><p>Schmidt’s Law</p><p></p></li></ul><p></p>
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Breakinf Fitts’ Law - Glazbrook

  • Participants performed movements to a target location

    • The target was either first, middle, or last in an array

  • Measured movement variability across the trajectory as an indicator of planning versus online movement control

    • Differences in variability earlier would indicate planning

    • Differences in variability later would indicate control

  • Differences emerged later in the trajectory, meaning the violation could be based on more efficient movement corrections

  • We don't actually plan for the worse case scenario - we adapt efficiently!

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Impulse-Variability and Speed Accuracy Tradeoffs

  • Impulse-Variability Theory

    • The variability in the duration of a group of contractions is related to the mean duration

    • The variability in force produced increases as a function of the force produced

    • Impulse-Variability theory can explain speed accuracy tradeoffs and violations that occur with more forceful movements

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Motor Learning

Aset of processes associated with practice or experience that leads to a relatively permanent change in the capability for movement

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Motor Learning is Set of Processes

  • A process is a set of events or occurrences that lead to a product or state of change

    • In motor learning we are interested in the processes associated with retrieving a motor program from memory

    • In pharmacokinetics they are interested in the processes associated with drug delivery

  • These processes are largely assumed

    • We think some events must have occurred for their to be learning as a result of practice

      • The nature of these processes are what learning theorists try to understand

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Learning is Associated with Practice or Experience

  • Practice: the purposeful repetition of a skill or behaviour

    • Practice makes permanent

  • Experience: the fact or state of having been affected by or gained knowledge through direct observation or participation

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Motor Learning is Relatively Permanent

  • Relatively permanent: change of state is not readily reversible

    • Any change that is readily reversible is not attributable to learning

  • When you have learned something, you are a different person

    • There has been some underlying change that is stable

  • Learning should have some lasting effect

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Learning Produces a Capability for Skilled Movement

  • The product of learning: the ability to move skillfully in a particular situation

    • The goal of motor learning is the strengthen the quality of the internal state such that the capability of the skill will be altered (hopefully improved) in future attempts

  • Capability for movement

    • Stresses the role of the internal states that leads to the skilled behaviour

      • Motivation, physiological states, fatigue

    • Numerous factors

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Learning is not Directly Observable

  • Learning involves highly complex phenomena

    • Many processes and many possible explanations

    • Multi-system interactions

  • Motor learning is not directly observable

    • We often have to infer these changes based on behaviour

      • We measure and test the stability of learned behaviours

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Neural Basis of Learning - Theories

  • Donald Hebbs

    • Hebbian processes: Neurons that fire together, wire together

  • Neural Networks (Geoffrey Hinton)

    • Most neurons receive inputs from other neurons

      • These inputs are weighted

    • Neurons can adapt their weights

  • Activation in networks can be observed by looking at

    • Outputs: electrical activity

    • Energy consumption - bloodflow

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Measuring the Neural Basis of Learning with FMRI

  • Functional connectivity analysis

    • Measures changes in blood flow between different brain regions

    • Correlate the time-series between different regions of interest (ROls)

    • Examine the strength of those relationships

  • Some studies have shown the functional connectivity can predict

    motor learning (McGregor and Gribble)

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Learning and Adaptation

  • Adaptation: the iterative process of adjusting one's movement to new demands

  • Motor Adaptation: the trial to trial modification based on error
    feedback

    • Movement retains identity (e.g., walking) but one of the parameters are changed

    • Change occurs with repetition or practice and is gradual over minutes

    • The person must de-adapt after the behaviour

      • They show an aftereffect

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Forcefield Adaptation Paradigm

  • Error before adaptation            

  • Forcefield removed - smaller period of error before de-adaptation

<ul><li><p>Error before adaptation<span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></p></li><li><p>Forcefield removed - smaller period of error before de-adaptation</p></li></ul><p></p>
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Measuring Acquisition

  • In a typical learning experiment:

    • Participant is exposed to a task (acquisition)

    • Performance on the task is plotted as a function of trials

      • Can examine consistency

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Performance (not learning) curves

knowt flashcard image
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Factors Affecting Performance

  • Between participants variability

    • Performance curves usually represent grouped data

      • Individual differences get "washed out"

  • Within-person variability

    • Performance of the individual person varies trial to trial

      • Average curve may not do a good job of catching individual variations

  • Ceiling Effects: limits at the top scale

  • Floor Effects: limits at the bottom of the scale

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Ceiling and Floor Effects

  • Gymnastics: easier to improve your score at mid-level

    • 6.0 - 6.5 vs 9.0 - 9.5

  • Reducing a score in golf is easier when strokes are high

    • 145 - 140 vs 75 - 70

  • Changes in performance levels becomes insensitive to changes in learning

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Retention and Transfer Tests

  • Retention tests: testing participant on the same task after a time interval

    • 24 hours retention interval is often used (for both retention and transfer)

    • Longer retention interval, the more transient effects are reduced

  • Transfer tests: involve new variations of the practiced task

    • Can involve the tasks with a twist (new speed or conditions)

    • Can involve a task that has not been practiced before

  •  Things that make you worse in practice make you learn better in the end

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Learning and Performance Variables

  • Changes in acquisition are not relatively permanent

  • Performance variables: influence performance in transient ways

    • The effect of the variable disappears when conditions are altered

  • Learning variables: influences performance in relatively permanent
    ways

    • The effect of the variable stays when conditions are altered

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Overlearning

  • The process of having a person or continue to practice after they have reached a performance ceiling

  • To assess the effect of overlearning we can calculate what’s called a
    “savings score”

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Other ways of Assessing Learning

  • Performance on a secondary task

    • Gives us an idea of how much attention is needed to perform a task

      • A well-learned task requires “less” attention

  • Measuring indices of effort

    • Physiological markers

    • Psychological markers

  • Measuring response latency

    • Speed of correct response or movement performance

  • Generalizability of learning

    • Varying the parameters of the task (linked to GMP)

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Optimizing Practice Conditions - Performance

  • How should practice be distributed

    • Massed practice - practicing with very little rest in between trials

    • Distributed practice - practicing with longer rest periods in between
      trials

  • Research on practice distributions are usually conducted
    using continuous tasks

    • Pursuit-tracking task

  • General conclusion

    • Short rest periods degrade practice relative to longer rest periods

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Distributed Practice and Learning

  • Fatigue could play a role in tasks such as the pursuit-rotor task

  • Can affect task performance, but does fatigue also affect learning?

  • Bourne and Archer (1956)

    • 0 s rest group performed worse in transfer

  • Ammons (1950)

    • Only small differences remained after the last transfer trials

    • However, the differences in performance re-emerged on the 24-hour transfer trial

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Distribution over a Larger Timescale

  • Baddeley and Longman (1978) looked at typing skills in postal workers

    • Compared different distributions and looked at long-term retention

    • Found that more distributed practice led to better retention when practice hours were held constant

    • After 9 months the group that practiced the most showed worse performance. All groups had the same practice. The group with more distributed practice learned more.

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Distributed Versus Massed Practice Application

  • This practice distribution literature has huge implications for many
    fields

    • Sports

    • Rehabilitation

    • Medical education

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