free will and moral responsibility

What is free will?

-the ability to freely choose to act (comission) or not to act (omission) in any circumstance.
-can only be achieved if people truly are able to choose without any external force acting upon them

what are the 3 levels of legal responsibility in the UK that correspond to the levels of moral responsibility?

-no responsibility
-diminished responsibility
-full responsibility

what is moral responsibility?

-the idea that people should be held responsible for their actions and thus receive rewards and punishments accordingly

which groups of people cannot understand the difference between right and wrong?

-babies and young children-they are insufficiently developed and have not live long enough to be able to distinguish right from wrong
-those with severe learning difficulties and those who suffer from certain forms of mental illness or neurological disabilities
-those who have permanently forgotten the difference as a result of dementia and other similar conditions
-those who have temporarily forgotten

what are some views on the source of moral awareness in telling right from wrong?

-David Hume claimed that it is innate-we just know we ought to respond positively to those in need of our help
-others claim that it is the product of one's upbringing, social environment or culture
-some would regard issues e.g. polygamy as differing expressions of a deeper and innate moral sense that is common to humanity as a whole
-can come from one's religious tradition

how do free will and moral responsibility relate

-a person can only be held morally responsible for an action if they committed it freely
-we should accept the blame for actions that we freely perform, however, if we are forced to commit an action we are not blameworthy, if we are forced to commit a good action, we should also not get praised for it
-freedom is therefore a condition of moral responsibility

Epicurus argument of free will

341-270BCE
Took the view that the world consisted entirely of atoms in a void and any event was therefore theoretically predictable given circumstances and natural forces.
We cannot determine our situations and have no freedom ein our actions, determined entirely by forces and circumstances outside ourselves beyond our control.
He points to the issue that science and observation tend toward determinism, personal and moral experience tend towards free will.

Epicurus' swerves

he believed that the atoms which make up everything are susceptible to slight 'swerves' or departure from their usual paths. as humans are made up of these atoms they are susceptible to these swerves too

what is incompatabilism?

-the view that Determinism and Libertarianism are incompatible: we are either free or determined
-Libertarianism allows for some free will-particularly moral free will, whereas, with Determinism, there is no free will.

What is compatiblism

scientific determinism is compatible with our experience of freedom- this is sometimes referred to as 'soft-determinism' in contrast to hard determinism.

What is Determinism

-A view that all events and situations e.g. human decisions are the necessary consequences of previous events and situations

what is causal determinism

because of the laws of cause and effect, everything can be seen as a chain of antecedent causes back to the big bang

Hard determinism definition

the view that because determinism is true no one has free will

what is Hard Determinism?

-based on the concept of universal causation-nothing is random and nothing is free
-The network of causes and conditions that exist at any one moment is held to be sufficient to determine everything that will happen in the future
-Science works on the assumption that the world operates in ways that are regular and theoretically predictable
-HD governs ethical choices- ethics, choices do not exist moral decision making is determined as are all events in the brain.
-Freedom is merely am illusion created by the complex processes that go on in the human brain
-HD would argue that because free will is illusion we are not logically responsible for our actions

what is universal causation?

the proposition that everything in the universe has a cause and is thus an effect of that cause- every event is the result of a previous related event.

Reductionism

-determinism is sometimes backed up by reductionism
-the view that to understand a complex entity one should analyse it to the smallest component parts of which it is made
-human behaviour is reduced to biology, which is reduced to chemistry, which is reduced to physics
-our thoughts may be seen as no more than electrical impulses in the brain and our actions are the result of chemical and electrical activity

Baruch Spinoza's view

1632-1677
-'feeling of freedom' is merely ignorance
-everything in the world was totally determined by physical causes and therefore was no scope for human freedom
-Spinoza suggested that we merely consider ourselves to be free because we are ignorant of all the causes operating upon us
-the experience of freedom is an illusion

what is Scientific Determinism?

-a form of HD that is based on evidence from the natural and applied sciences
-all events are determined by antecedent events and states of affair so there can be no freedom of the will
-the equations in physics are deterministic

physics governs everything and every event in the universe
-the future is also determined
-the traditional natural sciences and newer ones e.g. sociology, physiology and psychology all seem to point to a chain of causality with no gaps and allowing no scope for human free will
-Free will must be an illusion, as all moral behaviour has already been planned and known about by God.
-Pierre-Simon Laplace 1749-1827: 'Laplace's demon' is an intelligence which could comprehend all the forces by which nature is animated, nothing would be uncertain the future is as clear as the past

Daniel Dennet scientific determinism

1942-
'genetic fixity'
the genes of parents inevitably determine the characteristic of their children and so their behaviour is determined at conception.
received support from human genome project 1990-2003

Ways to avoid scientific determinism

1. if the laws of nature are probabilistic - previous scientific theories have been wrong and hypothesis and theory us tested through i derivation, current theories could therefore be wrong too

2.if the quantum world is indeterminate - matter at the quantum scale appears to be different from its appearance at the 'macro' scale we experience. If there is i determinism in quantum matter them determinism is false

2 ways of looking at natural law

-Universal or probabilistic
-Universal- this is when certain conditions are always found together and so you can conclude that when one factor is there, you will get a certain outcome.
-Probabilistic- on average in many cases, some conditions are typically found with certain outcomes

what is psychological Determinism?

-Psychological behaviourism is the view that human behaviour is caused predominantly by environmental conditions and that all actions are conditioned by previous ones
-influenced by Pavlov's study on canine digestive glands
-Watson claimed that humans enter the world as a blank slate 'tabula rasa' and that our behaviour is conditioned by upbringing and experiences
-behaviour consists simply of learned responses
-Watson and Skinner both claimed that conditioning "by the carrot or the stick" could lead to changed behaviour
-Watson-focused on fear, Skinner-focused on positive reinforcement

What are Skinner's views?

-that all behaviour is a product of our genetics and our environmental conditions
-human actions are a result of the consequences of previous actions
-if an action has good consequences the brain becomes programmed to choose this action, if it has bad consequences humans learn not to repeat it
-he denied the existence of free will because of psychological Determinism

What is the Pavolv's Dogs experiment?

1849-1936
-An experiment on the digestion of dogs -He noticed that the dogs' physical reactions to food subtly changed over time- at first, the dogs would only salivate when the food was placed in front of them-later they salivated slightly before their food arrived.
-proves that behaviour can be conditioned
-classical conditioning

What was Skinner's experiment?

1904-1990
-to show how reinforcement works
-placed a hungry rat into a box that contained a lever, as the rat scuried around inside the box, it would accidentally press the lever-caused the food pellet to drop into the box
-the purpose of the Skinner box was to analyse animal behaviour by detecting when an animal has performed a desired behaviour and then giving a reward for that behaviour-he could then determine how long it took the animal to learn to perform the behaviour
-operant conditioning

what are some challenges with Skinner's views?

-American cognitive scientist Noam Chomsky dismissed Skinner's proposals as an example of futile behaviourist speculation
-its basis is in animal studies which is quite different to human behaviour which is much more complex
-if everything is just a set of conditioned responses, then his theory is just a conditioned response

what is theological Determinism?

-Theological determinism is rooted in the christian idea that God is omniscient
-Found in the doctrine of predestination developed by Augustine and Calvin
-God's omniscience means that He knows the entire past, present and future of the universe and so there is no free choice -e.g. if God knows a person will perform an action at some point in the future, they can't avoid that action and they are therefore not free as they couldn't pick differently
-Augustine and Calvin believed that God has decided who are "the elect"(those going to Heaven) and those going to Hell-He also knows who will choose him in advance and so determines their future accordingly
Calvin- double predestination 5% elect
Augustine- three types of events: 1. caused by chance 2. caused by god 3.caused by us
St. Paul- God chooses who will be saved although mo one deserve it god gives it through his grace. humans are free to choose how to live their lives but their final destination is determined by god

what are some challenges to Theological Determinism?

-If there is no god then theological determinism is not true
-Many Christians do not like this view
-Aquinas claimed that God's omniscience is not causative, he sees the result of our free choices and has the power to intervene but doesn't.
-Aquinas believes God exists timelessly and so simply knows-actions stemming from our free choices cause God's timeless knowledge
-mainstream and Process theologians believe that God exists temporally and so He can't know the future and is not a threat to free will

quote on moral determinism and God

"Moral determinsim makes God immoral and makes humans amoral"-Norman Geisler

strengths of determinism

-Scientific support from chemistry, biology and physics.
-Empirical support from psychological experiments: Benjamin Libet's 1916-2007 cognitive psychology experiments- shows the brain prepares to act well before we are conscious of the urge to move
Explains why humans do things that harm others - prior causes.
It is possible to hold this viewpoint and still have faith in God.

weaknesses of determinism

-How can we function in a determinist society? Is there law and order?
-People can always blame God/science/psychology for their behaviour.
-Libertarians would reject it as they think we are morally responsible.
-Science and psychology: could be wrong/bad methods (e.g. Skinner and Pavlov use animals to back up their points).
-Theology: Makes belief in God and being good pointless.
-Libet denies his experiment as the brain has the ability to veto pre conscious intentions

What is libertarianism?

-the view that despite the powerful influences of genetics and environment etc (certain limitations e.g. physical, psychological and social)humans are free moral agents(people who have the ability to discern right from wrong and who can be held accountable for their actions)
-rejects universal causation and believes in causally undetermined choice
-'forward looking' in comparison to determinism: emphasis on the reason for actions particularly future action. The libertarian can control their desires in favour of rational deliberation.

Why do people believe in Libertarianism?

-some Libertarians are mind-body dualists-this means that mind is separate to the physical body-our physical bodies are subject to causal laws, but since our minds are separate they aren't limited by the physical world and our mind can make non-causal choices-free events happen in the mind, caused events happen in the body.
-there is a difference between the personality and the moral self-the personality is mostly made up of temperament and character-largely due to causal influences of heredity and environment, the moral self entails a decision between self-interest and duty-may go against the tendencies of personality
-we have a sense of moral responsibility-includes our sense of guilt when something goes wrong- suggests that we are free as we know that we could have chosen another option
-we experience ourselves as free-we feel free 'folk psychology' argument

what do Libertarians accept?

-would not deny that the external world is deterministic
-would accept that deterministic processes affect living beings
-that nature and nurture may exert strong and occasionally overwhelming influence on our moral decisions, but these are not necessarily determinant(that we won't 100% pick that decision because of those strong influences)
-that personality to a large extent is governed by heredity, social situation and environment
-no one is totally free because of certain limitations

Libertarian human behaviour example

kleptomaniac whose physiological, psychological and genetic disposition may dispose him to steal, so when left unobserved he may or may not steal

human behaviour limitations

-physical limitations: we are physically incapable of some things such as running a mile in two minutes, but physical limitations have little ethical significance

-psychological limitations: if we have a strong psychological motivation for one particular choice rather than another, this will have some bearing on what we choose

-social limitations: we are all limited by financial, social and political structures under which we live. The way we understand life and choices we make are influenced by our circumstances

For a libertarian limitations such as these are acceptable because complete freedom makes little sense

What is a contingent truth?

-things that cannot be proved true but which are generally accepted as true on grounds of probability
-free will is a contingent truth to Libertarians, however, it is difficult to know exactly how the brain is able to act freely and what part of it is involved

What are Kant's views on moral duty?

-morality is what we ought to do
-"ought implies can"-knowing what we should do shows that we are morally free to choose this action
We are free internally (in our minds) and externally (politically being able to do what we want).
The rule of law (categorical imperatives/ laws that govern soc) ensures that we are truly free, as without it other people could behave in a way that prevents us from pursuing the Summum Bonum (rational, moral behaviour).

strengths of libertarianism

-People are held responsible for their actions.
-It is fair and legitimate to have systems of punishment in society.
-Avoids the issues of Determinism.
-Fits with Quantum theory, where at a base level in the universe "quarks" behave randomly.
-we experience ourselves as free and we also have sense of moral responsibility the 'common sense' argument known as 'folk psychology'
-we argue for free will because most people assume that they are free and if we are determined then those making statements about determinism are only determined to do so

weaknesses of libertarianism

People are psychologically determined by their past behaviours.
People could be argued to be theologically determined.
Some people cannot be responsible for their actions - for example children, the severely mentally ill.
People are given "terrifying freedom" to do what they like.
Kant's ideas only work in a democratic society.

Determinism vs Libertarianism

-determinists claim the mind is subject to causal laws but libertarians argue it is false otherwise there would be no argument for it
-determinists argue there is evident for it but no evidence for libertarianism, libertarians argue the only evidence is natural law but there is no reason to believe the mind is controlled this way

what is Compatibilism?

-the view that human freedom and moral responsibility are compatible with Determinism
-we are free when we act according to our wishes-freedom is the ability to do what we want, if there are external causes on an individual's choice then they have not acted freely
-the classic account of the compatibility position is given by Hume
-not entirely free otherwise we would suffer was 'paralysis of choice'

What is the difference between external and internal causes of one's actions?

-Internal is when you do something because you want to-similar to free will, describes our temperament or personality-made up of their desires, wishes and intentions, whereas external is when you do something because of external influences-it is similar with compulsion, when factors beyond our control determine what we do
-the difference between them helps to explain why moral freedom and responsibility are required by Determinism

how do compatibilists find that free will and determinism are compatible?

-Our desires are determined, yet when you are able to act on your desires, you are acting freely.

similarities between soft Determinism(Compatibilism) and Hard Determinism?

-Both believe that all human actions are caused(means that there are causes behind people's actions-reasons why they do things)

what are Hume's views on Compatibilism?

-Hume thinks we have 'liberty of spontaneity' rather than 'liberty of indiffernece'. Liberty of spontaneity is liberty consistent with necessity and the ability to do what you desire
-he believed the controversy of freedom and determinism comes from philosophers not defining terms with accuracy
-He believes necessity for causal determinism is not logical necessity
-'constant conjunction' means we cannot talk about necessary laws of cause and effect in nature as the understanding of necessity is to strong
-constant conjunction is common in human behaviour too
-this shows liberty and necessity are compatible
-argues that some things are uncaused or happen as a result of mere chance
-he believes that we are free
-mentions how we don't blame people for things they do ignorantly and we blame them even less for things they do that are not premeditated-any sense of moral blame is only logical if we do something as a result of our character

Hume's definition of freedom

'by liberty… we can only mean a power of acting or not acting according to the determination of the will'

We are shaped by physical and other laws and at the same time we are free to make choices, including moral choices. We have the ability to do what we desire.

What are Aquinas' views on Compatibilism?

-the concept of sin shows that humans have some free will over their actions and could choose differently if they wanted to

Arthur Schopenhauer quote on free will

"man can do what he wills but he cannot will what he wills"-an agent may be free to act according to a motive but the nature of that motive is determined

strengths of compatibilism

People are held responsible for their actions.
It is fair and legitimate to have systems of punishment in society.
Combines the other two theories, therefore avoids the issues of Determinism. Avoids the issues of Libertarianism.
Criminals are rehabilitated under Hume's view of punishment so there is less crime in society.
Secular so can apply to everyone
-Humes philosophical method based on definitions means if his definitions are accepted he is correct

weaknesses of compatibilism

Confusing definition of free will as it focuses on motivation, not on whether or not people are truly free.
People are not really free if there are aspects of their behaviours that are determined.
"Just Deserts" is a theory of punishment that argues that humans should get what they deserve - not be rehabilitated.
Some people choose the wrong actions and should be punished for it.
Determinists argue Hume's idea of 'constant conjunction' is too watered down
Libertarians think compatibility on hume's account ignores human reason but that is what led him to his theory

approaches to crime and socially deviant behaviour

1.crime is a mental condition: an illness that can be treated
-determining factors in a persons life for which they cannot be blamed
-treatment should be therapeutic to heal the criminal
-corporeal punishment leads to reoffending

2.crime is deliberately anti social behaviour and should be punished:
—retribution
-to signify society's disapproval of criminal acts and act as a detterant
-enforced the idea of responsibility
-reform is costly and ineffective
-society should be protected from criminals

What is Compatiblist view on moral responsibility?

-it is possible to be held morally responsible as we still have some free choice
-however, there are some cases where freedom is very limited e.g. the Somali Pirates who kidnapped a couple, some believe that they should not be held responsible for their actions as they showed a clear lack of understanding about marriage for love-suggests that they had limited education and emotional maturity, the circumstances that led them to a life of piracy could be pre-determined-they were born in a corrupt and impoverished environment

Why might some say the Somali pirates should be held responsible?

-Libertarian view is that they have free will and since they broke international laws regarding murder, kidnapping and piracy they should be punished
-they should have been able to see from Judith Tebutt's distress that they were behaving wrongly

Is the Uk law Compatibilist, Libertarian or Deterministic?

-Compatibilist
-the law punishes people who freely choose to do wrong, suggesting that there is freedom of choice and UK law is based on libertarian ideals, however, since not all people are seen as having total free will, it appears that there are certain conditions that limit free will and moral responsibility, such as children those with depression and the mentally unstable

What is the Libertarian view on Compatbilism?

-the idea of freedom as determined by our nature is not genuine freedom

What are the different responses of these theories to "could I have done otherwise"?

Hard Determinism-no
Libertarians-yes
Compatibilists-yes had I desired to do otherwise

What is the Compatibilist view on the terminology of Determinism and Libertarianism?

-it is confusing this is what leads to dispute between them
-compelled is not the same as caused
-free is not the same as uncaused

What are Hard Determinist views towards reward and punishment?

-Reward and punishment are meaningless because those who break the law for example did not choose to because all events are determined and unavoidable
-the religious doctrine of predestination makes sin redundant because nobody can be blamed by god for what they do. Also makes the ideas of atonement pointless
-HD's reject the idea of retribution
-Skinner suggested psychological conditioning as a way of reforming an offender's character and outlook by manipulating their minds
-Clarence Darrow and the Leopold vs. Lowe case in which he argued they didn't have free will when they executed their perfect crime in order to get them off the death penalty

criticisms of hard determinist view

for libertarians any attempt at conditioning must be determined by existing conditions so you might as well do nothing

What are Libertarian views on reward and punishment?

-Kant and many other Libertarians would see retribution as the appropriate response to crime
-Retribution is needed for those who commit crimes and don't have diminished responsibility
-to see people as the product fo social and genetic forces is to treat people as objects with dignity
-Some Libertarians see reformation as the appropriate response-help offenders to face up to the harm they have caused, they may then feel regret and they can make a conscious decision to behave differently in the future

weakness of libertarian approach

if determinism is the then libertarianism is another determined response to moral issues

What are the Compatibilist views on reward and punishment?

-They accept moral responsibility for those who could have done otherwise if they wished to
-Hume said that actions should be judged praiseworthy and blameworthy only where "they are indications of the internal character, passions and affections"
-Hume's understanding of punishment was intended to improve society- he believed that rewards and punishment were using the carrot and the stick to manipulate behaviour
-He totally rejected on moral grounds any idea of eternal punishment as a totally disproportionate response to the "short-term offences of a frail creature like man"

example of having free will/ not having free will

If a driver has a heart attack whilst driving and gets into a car accident, they are not morally responsible for crashing into the parked car in front of them, however, if the driver was not feeling well and refused to listen to the guidance of their doctor and crashed into a parked car, they would be morally responsible as they chose not to listen to their doc.