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covalent compounds
non-metals react to share electrons, forming a ______ bond
covalent compounds examples
dihydrogen monoxide (H2O)
sulphur tetrachloride (SC4)
methane (CH4)
ionic compounds
metals react with non-metals, transferring electrons, forming ions that attract because of opposite charges
ionic compounds examples
calcium chloride (CaCl2)
magnesium nitrate (Mg(NO3)2)
zinc (II) chloride (ZnCl2)
hydrochloric acid (HCl)
sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
nitiric acid (HNO3)
acetic acid (CH3COOH)
common acids
sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
potassium hydroxide (KOH)
ammonia (NH3)
barium hydroxide (Ba(OH)2)
common bases
methyl orange
colours on indicator:
red - acid, yellow/orange - base
bromothymol blue
colours on indicator
yellow - acid, green - neutral, blue - base
red litmus paper
colours on indicator:
red - neutral, acid
blue - base
blue litmus paper
colours on indicator:
red - acid
blue - neutral, base
meth, eth, prop, but, pent, hex, hept, oct, non, dec
prefixes from 1-10
CnH2n+2
alkanes formula
CnH2n
alkenes formula
CnH2n-2
alkynes formula
polymers
large molecules made of smaller repeating units called monomers
naturally occuring polymers examples
proteins (polypeptin)
rubber
starch
cellulose (in plants)
DNA
synthetic polymers examples
plastics and artificial fibres such as:
PVC
nylon
PET
polyethene
polystyrene
law of conservation of mass
mass cannot be created nor destroyed
chemical reactions
atoms are rearranged, mass of reactants = mass of products
3 types of combustion
metal combustion
hydrocarbon fuel combustion
hydrogen fuel combustion
metal + oxygen —> metal oxide
metal combustion general equation
metal combustion example(s)
2Mg + O2 —> 2MgO
hydrocarbon + oxygen —> carbon dioxide + water
hydrocarbon fuel combustion general equation
hydrocarbon fuel combustion example(s)
CH4 + 2O2 —> CO2 + 2H2O
C2H4+ 3O2 —> 2CO2 + 2H2O
2C4H6 + 11O2 —> 8CO2 + 6H2O
2H2 + O2 —> 2H2O
hydrogen fuel combustion
acid + base —> salt + water
neutralisation general equation
metal + acid —> salt + hydrogen gas
metal + carbonate —> salt + carbon dioxide + water
metal reactions general equations
Mg + 2HCl —> MgCl2 + H2
magnesium + hydrochloric acid —> magnesium chloride + hydrogen gas
H2SO4 + 2NaOH —> Na2SO4 + 2H2O
sulfuric acid (hydrogen sulfate) + sodium hydroxide —> sodium sulfate + water
corrosion
involves similar reactants as metal combustion, but is a slower reaction
corrosion example
rusting of iron;
4Fe + 3O2 —> 2Fe2O3
precipitation reaction
two soluble solutions forming a soluble solution and an insolube solid (precipitate)
precipitation example
Ba(NO3)2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) —> 2NaNO3(aq) + BaCO3(s)
neutralisation example
2HNO3 + K2O —> 2KNO3 + H2O
2NaCl —> 2Na + Cl2
decomposition example
3 types of decomposition reactions
electrolysis
photolysis
thermal decomposition
activation energy
the minimum amount of eergy needed to kickstart a chemical reaction
exothermic reactions
reactions in which reactants have more energy than the products (energy is released into the surroundings)
endothermic reactions
reactions in which the reactans have less energy than the products (energy is absorbed from the surroundings)
exothermic reactions examples
respiration
combustion
corrosion
endothermic reactions examples
photosynthesis
decomposition
5 factors that change the rate of reactions
temperature
concentration
catalysts
agitation
surface area
how increasing temperature affects the rate of reaction
causes the molecules to move faster which increases the chance of collisions between reactants and therefore increasing the rate of reaction
eliminates in “clumps” of reactants and allows them to move freely and react
how agitation affects the rate of reaction
increases the likehood of collisions by decreasing the space between atoms
how increased concentration affects the rate of reaction
how increased surface area affects the rate of reaction
increased the exposure one reactant to another hence increasing the likelihood of collisions
how a catalyst affect the rate of reaction
speed up the rate of reaction typically by lower the activation energy or changing the reaction mechanism
collision theory
“for chemicals to react, they need to collide and have enough energy”
—> the more collisions, the higher the rate of reaction
NH4+
ammonium ion
OH-
hydroxide ion
NO3-
nitrate ion
HCO3-
hydrogen carbonate ion
SO42-
sulphate ion
CO32-
carbonate ion
PO43-
phosphate ion
distance
length of the line/path between two points (scalar quantity)
displacement
length of the straight line between two points (vector quantity)
speed
change in distance over time
average speed
change in total distance over total time taken
instantaneous speed
the speed of an object during a very small duration of time
scalar vs. vector
only magnitude vs. magnitude and direction
acceleration
change in speed/velocity over time (can be vector or scalar)
how can an object accelerate (change velocity) whilst the speed remains the same?
Acceleration is a change in velocity, either in its magnitude or in its direction, or both.
In uniform circular motion, the direction of the velocity changes constantly, so there is always an associated acceleration, even though the speed might be constant.
SI units
(displacement/distance) metres
(time) seconds
(speed/velocity) ms-1
(acceleration) ms-2
(mass) kg
converting between km/h and m/s
km/h —> m/s : divide by 3.6
m/s —> km/h ; multiply by 3.6
ways of measuring speed
speedometer: uses electrical currents
radar guns: uses radio wave frequency
mobile speed cameras: sensors
gradients of graphs
distance - time graph —> speed
displacement - time graph —> velocity
velocity - time graph —> acceleration
areas below graphs
velocity - time —> displacement
speed - time —> distance
acceleration - time —> velocity
reaction time
the time it takes for someone to react to an emergency (in a car)
0.15 - 0.30 s
typical reaction time for an alert and concentrating person
reaction distance
the distance covered by the car during the reaction time
braking distance
the distance covered by the car after the brakes have been applied
stopping distance
reaction distance + braking distance
factors that slow down reaction time
passengers
speaking or texting on the phone, changing music or working navigation systems
influence of drugs or alcohol
age
fatigue
how do mobile speed cameras work
electronic sensors on the road, accurately measure the speed
if the speed exceeds the legal limit, a photograph is taken
factors the led to road accidents
essentially factors that increase reaction time and create districation from the road
forces acting on an object when its falling down
gravitational force
air resistance/drag
the velocity of a falling object
as the object falls, it will initially accelerate due to gravity. Its acceleration will soon approach 0 due to air resistance.
formula for acceleration
a = (v-u)/t
v = at +u
final velocity formula (with acceleration, time and initial velocity)
v2 = u2 + 2as
final velocity formula (with initial velocity, acceleration, displacement)
s = ut + ½at2
displacement formula (with initial velocity, time, acceleration)
net force
the vector sum of all forces that act upon an object
newton’s first law
an object will remain stationary unless acted upon by an unbalanced force
an object in motion will remain at the same speed and direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force
inertia
an object’s tendency to resist motion
example(s) of the first law
people in vehicles moving forward when the vehicle comes to a stop
safety features of cars to minimise the effect of inertia
seat belts: inertia reels lock the belts when they are pulled abruptly
airbags: prevent collion with hard surfaces and minimise space to move
head restraints: prevent abrupt backward motion of the head and hence whiplash injuries
newtons’s second law of motion
An onject will accelerate in the direction of an unbalanced force acting upon it.
The size of this acceleration depends upon the mass of the object and the size of the force acting.
examples of the second law
pushing empty cart vs. a cart full of bricks
pushing little kids vs. big kids on skateboards
F = ma
formula relating force, mass and acceleration
newton’s third law of motion
for every action force, there is an equal and opposite reaction force
a nail getting hit by a hammer, the mail exerts an equal force back on the hammer
a sprinter pushes back on the starting blocks, the strating blocks push forward on the sprinter
a book resting on a table exerts its weight force onto the table, the table exerts an equal support force
an octopus squirts water out as jets through a tube just below its head. The water jets push back on the octopus, propellng it in the opposite direction
standing on the skateboard and pushing against a wall, the wall pushes back, making the person move away
examples of third law
first law applications in space
space has no air and therefore no air resistance to slow down a spacecraft.
inertia ensures that any rocket launched continues to travel in its initial speed and direction forever (e.g. Voyager I in 1977)
second law applications in space
At launch, a rocket is at its heaviest and needs to break free of Earth’s gravity
As the rocket rises (due to a large force acting on it) it experiences less air resistance than at sea level, due to the atmospshere becoming thinner
fuel tanks are emptied and jettisoned, making the rocket lighter
overall a smaller force is needed to kepp it accelerating
third law applications in space
rockets ignite and expek exhaust gases from them
the action force: expulsion of exhaust gases
the reaction force pushes the rocket in the opposite direction (upwards)
forms of energy
kinetic energy
sound energy
light energy
heat energy
electrical energy
potential energy
types of potential energy
chemical potential
gravitational potential
elastic potential
kinetic energy
energy of moving objects
½mv2
kinetic energy formula
relationship between stopping distance and speed
the higher the speed, the mroe the stopping distance
if the speed is doubled, the distance would increase by around a factor of four