AP Psychology Unit 2 - Perception and Problem-Solving

gestalt psychology

an organized whole; psychologists emphasize our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes and to perceive patterns and structures in sensory input

figure and ground

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground)

proximity

grouping nearby figures together

similarity

we group objects together according to how similar they are to each other

closure

filling in the gaps to create a complete/whole object

depth perception

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance

visual cliff

laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants/young animals

binocular depth cues

a depth cue that depends on the use of two eyes

retinal disparity

binocular cue for perceiving depth; by comparing retinal images from the two eyes, the brain computes distance (greater disparity between two images = closer the object)

convergence

a cue to nearby objects’ distance, enabled by the brain combining retinal images

monocular depth cues

a depth cue, such as interposition or linear perspective, available to either eye alone

relative clarity

monocular depth cue where the brain interprets sharp, detailed, and clear objects as being closer

relative size

monocular depth cue where, if two objects are assumed to be similar in size, the casting of a smaller image on the retina is perceived as farther away

texture gradient

monocular depth cue where the perceived texture of a surface changes from coarse/distinct to fine/indistinct

linear perspective

monocular depth cue where parallel lines appear to converge at a single point on the horizon (allows the brain to perceive 3D distance on a 2D surface)

interposition

monocular depth cue where one object partially blocks/overlaps another

apparent movement

visual illusion where the brain perceives motion in stationary objects, commonly caused by rapid, sequential stimuli

perceptual constancies

tendency to perceive objects as having stable, unchanging properties (size, shape) despite charges in sensory input (viewing angle, distance, illumination)

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, communicating, remembering

metacognition

cognition about our cognition; keeping track of and evaluating our mental processes

concept

mental grouping of similar objects, events, idea, people

prototypes

mental images or best example of a category; provides a quick, easy method for sorting items into categories

schemas

concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

assimilation

interpretation of our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

accommodation

adapting our current schemas (understanding) to incorporate new information

creativity

the ability to produce new and valuable ideas

convergent thinking

narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

divergent thinking

expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions

algorithm

methodical, logical rule/procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem

heuristics

simple thinking strategy (mental shortcut) that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently

confirmation bias

tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory advice

functional fixedness

cognitive bias that hinders creativity and problem solving to perceive objects only in their traditional, intended use

mental set

tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often in a way that has been successful in the past

representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent/match particular prototypes

availability heuristic

judging the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory

priming

effect in which recent experiences of a stimulus facilitates or inhibits later processing

overconfidence

tendency to be more confident than correct - to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements

belief perseverance

the persistence of one’s initial conceptions even after the basis on which they were formed has been created

framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgements

gambler’s fallacy

individuals wrongly believe the future independent events are influenced by past, unrelated results

sunk-cost fallacy

causes people to continue an endeavor based on accumulated time rather than on current/rational benefits

executive functions

cognitive skills that work together, enabling us to generate, organize, plan, and implement goal-directed behavior

memory

persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

recall

measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier; as on a fill-in-the-blank test

recognition

measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned

encoding

getting information into the memory system (example: extracting meaning)

storage

retaining encoded information over time

retrieval

getting information out of memory storage

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

short term memory

briefly activated memory of a few items (phone number digits) that is later stored or forgotten

long term memory

relatively permanent and limitless archive of the memory system (knowledge, skills, experiences)

multi-store model

idea that human memory consists of 3 separate, sequential components (shorter term, long term, sensory)

working memory

newer understanding of short-term memory; conscious active processing - incoming sensory information, information retrieved from long-term memory

central executive

memory component that coordinates the activities of the phonological/visuospatial sketchpad

phonological loop

memory component that briefly holds auditory information

visuospatial sketchpad

memory component that briefly holds information about objects’ appearance/location in space

long-term potentiation

increase in a nerve cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; neural basis for learning/memory

explicit memory

retention of facts and experiences that we can consciously know and “declare”

effortful processing

encoding requiring attention and conscious effort

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information (space, time, frequency)

implicit memory

retention of learned skills.classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection

procedural memory

long-term memory for skills involved in particular tasks (skilled performance)

prospective memory

memory involved in remembering to do something in the future

iconic memory

momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli/picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

echoic memory

momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds/words can still be recalled 3-4 seconds

chunking

organizing items into familiar manageable units; often occurs automatically

mnemonic devices

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery/organizational devices

hierarchies

few broad categories divided/subdivided into narrower concepts/facts

method of loci

cognitive mnemonic psychology device that boosts memory by anchoring information to specific locations

categories

broad groups encompassing different subjects/subtopics

spacing effect

tendency for distributed study/practice to yield better long term memory retention rather than massed practice

massed practice (cramming)

studying a lot of material in a very short amount of time; not very thorough

distributed practice

highly effective learning technique where study sessions are spread out

levels of processing model

idea that memory retention is a by product of the depth of processing with deeper, semantic processing producing stronger memory traces over shallow, phonemic processing

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

structural processing

shallow level of encoding that focuses on the physical, visual, structural characteristics of a stimulus

phonemic processing

core psychological skill involving the perception, storage, and manipulation of speech sounds

semantic processing

deepest level of cognitive processing, involving the extraction of meaning from stimuli

maintenance rehearsal

cognitive process involving the repetition of information to keep it active in short-term memory

elaborative rehearsal

cognitive psychology memory strategy that strengthens long term retention

intelligence

the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

general intelligence (g)

underlies all mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test

fluid intelligence (Gf)

the ability to reason and solve new problems independently of previously acquired knowledge

crystallized intelligence (Gc)

the accumulated knowledge and verbal skills that are developed

Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences

multiple theories regarding different aptitudes and intelligence levels, focusing on different fields (visual, verbal, existential)

Sternberg’s 3 Intelligences

proposed three (not nine) intelligences

• analytical (academic problem-solving)

• creative (innovation)

• practical (daily tasks)

emotional intelligence theory

ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions

achievement tests

test designed to assess what a person has learned

aptitude tests

test designed to predict a person’s future performance (aptitude: capacity to learn)

mental age

measure of intelligence test performance; typically associated with children

intelligence quotient (IQ)

originally - (mental age/chronological age) x 100

modern - average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100

Flynn effect

rise in intelligence test performance over time and across cultures

standardization

defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group

reliability

extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores in two halves of a test, on alternating forms, or retesting entirely

test-retest reliability

retesting a participant with the same test for a second time

split-half reliability

agreement of odd-numbered question scores and even-numbered question scores to be combined

validity

extent to which a test/experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to

construct validity

how much a test measures a concept or trait