Transoceanic Interconnections (1450–1750): Exploration, Trade, and Cultural Exchange

Transoceanic travel

Long-distance sea travel connecting continents across the Atlantic and Indian Oceans.

Maritime empires

Sea-based empires that relied on naval power and overseas colonies (Spain, Portugal, Netherlands, England).

Caravel

A small, fast, and maneuverable ship used by Portuguese and Spanish explorers.

Astrolabe

A navigation tool used to determine latitude by measuring the angle of stars.

Magnetic compass

A device that shows direction using Earth's magnetic field.

Lateen sail

A triangular sail that allowed ships to sail against the wind.

Trade winds

Steady winds that helped sailors cross oceans efficiently.

Ocean currents

Patterns of moving water that helped speed up long-distance travel.

European motivations for exploration

Desire for wealth, spread of Christianity, and competition between states.

Christopher Columbus

Italian explorer whose 1492 voyage connected Europe to the Americas.

Vasco da Gama

Portuguese explorer who found a sea route from Europe to India.

Prince Henry the Navigator

Portuguese royal who supported early exploration and navigation.

Columbian Exchange

The exchange of plants, animals, people, diseases, and culture between the Old and New Worlds.

Old World

Africa, Europe, and Asia before contact with the Americas.

New World

The Americas before European contact.

Biological exchange

Movement of plants, animals, and diseases between hemispheres.

Smallpox

A deadly Old World disease that killed millions of Native Americans.

Maize (corn)

A New World crop that became a global food staple.

Potatoes

A New World crop that caused population growth in Europe.

Horses

Old World animals that transformed transportation and warfare in the Americas.

Great Dying

Massive population decline of Indigenous Americans due to disease.

Atlantic slave trade

Forced migration of Africans to the Americas for labor.

Middle Passage

Harsh ocean voyage enslaved Africans endured across the Atlantic.

Triangular Trade

Trade system linking Europe, Africa, and the Americas.

Plantation system

Large agricultural estates using enslaved labor to grow cash crops.

Cash crops

Crops grown for sale, such as sugar, tobacco, and cotton.

Mercantilism

Economic system where states controlled trade to increase national wealth.

Favorable balance of trade

Exporting more than importing to gain wealth.

Joint-stock company

Business funded by multiple investors who share risks and profits.

Dutch East India Company

A powerful joint-stock company controlling Asian trade.

British East India Company

English joint-stock company that dominated Indian Ocean trade.

Potosí

Massive silver mine in present-day Bolivia.

Silver trade

Global trade system fueled by American silver.

Price Revolution

Inflation caused by increased silver in Europe.

Encomienda system

Spanish system granting settlers Native labor in exchange for protection and conversion.

Mit'a system

Incan labor system adapted by the Spanish for mining.

Indentured servants

Laborers who worked for a set number of years in exchange for passage.

Chattel slavery

A system where enslaved people were treated as property.

African diaspora

The spread of African people and culture due to slavery.

Casta system

Racial hierarchy in Spanish colonies.

Peninsulares

Spanish-born elites living in the Americas.

Creoles (Criollos)

American-born people of Spanish descent.

Mestizos

People of mixed European and Indigenous ancestry.

Mulattoes

People of mixed European and African ancestry.

Social hierarchies

Ranking of people based on race, class, and occupation.

Syncretism

The blending of religions and cultures.

Cultural diffusion

Spread of ideas, beliefs, and customs between societies.

State-sponsored exploration

Governments funding voyages for economic and political gain.

Naval power

Strong navy used to protect trade and empire.

Colonial economies

Economic systems focused on exporting raw materials.

Resistance to empire

Opposition by enslaved people and Indigenous groups.

Slave revolts

Uprisings by enslaved people against their oppressors.

Continuities in Unit 4

Agriculture, patriarchy, and social inequality remained.

Changes in Unit 4

Global trade expanded, slavery increased, and new social classes formed.

Environmental impact

Ecological changes caused by new crops, animals, and diseases.

Globalization

Early process of worldwide economic and cultural connection.