Politics Middy 2

Authoritarianism

• A small group of individuals exercises power

• No constitutional responsibility to public

• No popular right to choose leaders

• Limit, to varying degrees, other public rights

• Ideology may or may not play a role (personalistic, military, religious, etc.)

Totalitarianism

Nondemocratic rule that seeks to transform total fabric of society through a ‘totalist’ ideology/approach (rare)

• Almost inevitable use of force to break people, shatter institutions (violence central)

Elites & Nondemocratic Rule

Elites in highly unequal societies often reinforce non-democratic structures, incentivizing elites to maintain power and resources.

Kleptocracy

State becomes a tool to siphon off resources and to keep power consolidated, or elites taking from the people. Rule by theft

Resource curse

Abundant natural resources, such as oil, leads to worse economic growth, less development, higher inequality and corruption.

Nondemocratic regimes have _____ civil society

Weaker; More authoritarian means less civil society, repression is negatively correlated with civil society

Why can war and international relations lead to Nondemocratic rule?

• Poorly drawn borders

• Uneven modernization

• Weak autonomy and capacity

• International support for nondemocratic regimes

Coercion and Surveillance

• Observation, use of force against people, Secret police

• Targeted harassment, torture, killings, widespread purges

• Inculcation of fear necessary-atomize population

Corpatism

• Limited number of state sanctioned organizations

• No private organizations allowed

• Organizations connected directly to state

Clientelism

• Less structured method

• Public exchanges political support for specific favors or benefits

• Rent-seeking: parts of state “rented out” to supporters

Personality Cults

• Promotion of image of leader above mortal qualities

• Extraordinary wisdom and power, quasi-religious qualities

• Use of media to portray this image

Non-democratic Legitimacy

Non-democratic rule depends on both carrots and sticks. Charisma, tradition (such as monarchs) and rationality (rule by unelected ‘experts’) all can exist in nondemocratic rule.

Personal and Monarchical Rule

Claim that one person alone is fit to rule the country.

• Ruler not subject of the state (but rather its protector or embodiment)

• Often justified through charismatic or traditional legitimacy (cult of personality)

Patrimonialism

Ruler depends on collection of supports in the state who gain direct benefits from that rule (ethnic groups, clans, religious groups, etc.)

Military Rule

• Military seizes control of state: coup d’etat

• Often justified as a temporary move (instability)

• Often lacks a specific ideology

• Many transition to democracy, but not all

Bureaucratic authoritarianism

state bureaucracy and military support “rational” authoritarian rule as opposed to “emotional” democracy

One-Party Rule

• Single political party monopolizes power, and other parties banned or excluded from power (formally or informally)

• Party incorporates people into politics, though still a minority-cooptation primary feature of system

• Party control extends into community (cells)

• Benefits given to party members in return for support (may be small or large group)

• Leadership uses the party to mobilize and spread propaganda as needed

Theocracy

• “Rule by God”

• Faith is the foundation for the political regime

• Such a regime can be found on any number of faiths (and has been across history)

• Often the goal of fundamentalists

• Very difficult to achieve and comparatively rare

• Iran as a (weak) example of theocracy in practice

Illiberal/Hybrid Regimes

• Possess democratic mechanisms, but weakly institutionalized

• Executive typically hold tremendous power

• Democratic processes not well respected

• Subject to sudden changes, arbitrary withdrawal

• Media under state control

• State institutions under direct control of government (politicized)

• Often considered a “Halfway house” - will become more democratic over time - but not necessarily

Democratic trends

Dramatic expansion of democracy in past two decades, but future less clear… democratic erosion

Schedler: ‘The Menu of Manipulation’

Electoral authoritarianism is widespread and often misclassified as democracy. Elections alone do not equal democracy. Their quality, freedom, and consequences determine whether they are truly democratic.

• These regimes use elections to signal legitimacy, manage opposition, and stabilize rule

• Understanding “menu of manipulation” help detect non-democratic practices

Schedler: Electoral Authoritarianism

• Many contemporary regimes hold elections but violate minimal democratic norms.

• These systems are forms of authoritarian rule.

• Leaders seek the legitimacy of elections without the uncertainty of real competition.

• “Foggy zone” between democracy and closed authoritarianism.

• Elections can be tools of control

Schedler: Fourfold Regime Typology

1. Liberal Democracy: Elections + rule of law, civil liberties, accountability

2. Electoral Democracy: Elections meet minimal democratic standards but lack liberal guarantees

3. Electoral Authoritarianism: Elections exist but fail to meet democratic norms

4. Closed Authoritarianism: No meaningful elections at all

Electoral authoritarian regimes fall below the threshold of democracy even if they look competitive.

Schedler: 7 Conditions of Democratic Choice

1. Empowerment: elected officials must hold real power

2. Free supply: opposition parties must be allowed to compete

3. Free Demand: Voters must access alternative information

4. Inclusion: universal suffrage must be respected

5. Insulation: voters must be free from coercion and bribery

6. Integrity: votes must be counted honestly and equally

7. Irreversibility: winners must be allowed to take office and govern

The Menu of Manipulation

• Reserved positions/domains: limit what elected offcials can actually control

• Excluding or fragmenting opposition: bans, legal barriers, intimidation, divide-and-rule tactics

• Controlling information: media bias, censorship, repression of civil liberties

• Disenfranchisement: manipulation registration, ID rules, or access to polling stations

• Coercion and vote buying: intimidation clientelism, threats

• Fraud and institutional bias: ballot stuffing, gerrymandering, malapportionment

• Reversing outcomes: preventing winners from taking office or exercising power

Political violence

Politically motivated violence outside of state control

• Actions carried out by non-state actors

• Often goal is to become new rulers of the state (regime change)

Explanations of political violence

• Institutions - provide access, instill grievances, facilitate action

• Ideas - more amenable to violence, justifications for violence

• Individuals - humiliated groups, under-represented

Revolutions

Mass uprising to fundamentally transform the regime

• mass, public movement

• goal is to seize the state, removing the regime

Revolution causes

• Relative deprivation: rapid economic growth creates unmet expectations, triggers resentment

• Institutions: States weakened by war undergo reforms, creating dissent

• Organizations: Opponents of regime succeed when tey share ideas and have international ties.

Terrorism

Small group using coercion to seek a change in regime or policy

• targets civilians to pressure governments

• seeks political goals, such as territory

Terrorism causes

• Religious ideology/apocalyptic beliefs: Belief end of world is near

• Nihilism: Belief that violence is inherently meaningful

• Humiliation and despair: Only self-worth comes from a terror group

Radical restructuring

Wanted by terrorists. Target population rather than try to win them over like guerrillas. Have expansive goals that are outside mainstream political debate, unlike other social movements.

Terrorism strategic goals

• Disrupting negotiated settlements

• preventing political and economic development

How does terrorism differ from guerilla warfare

• Negotiation not possible

• state is illegitimate, goal is regime change

Political violence and legitimacy

Governments depend on legitimacy to rule. Terrorists can undermine legitimacy and present their views as legitimate.

• Make governments appear incompetent

• Highlight dissatisfaction

• Claim mandate from community or religion

• State goals in terms of broader principles.

Religious fundamentalism

• Return to (imagined) pristine community

• Replace political ideology with religious law

• Reject uncertainty stemming from rapid social and economic modernization

Fundamentalist violence

• During periods of modernization

• When doctrine can justify dehumanization

• Where beliefs are utopian or messianic

State Responses

• Countering terrorists and revolutionaries

  • Fundamental dilemma: repression or reform?

• Repression

  • may eliminate immediate threat

  • Leads to more resentment later

• Reform

  • May satisfy some demands

  • Can encourage more demands later

Valentino: ‘Why We Kill’

New consensus: Violence against civilians is instrumental and seeks to achieve tangible or military objectives

• Previous views pre 1990:

  • Civilian deaths as collateral damage

  • Civilian fatalities the result of ancient hatred/tribal sentiments

Valentino: Findings

• Focus on governmental exploitation of communal differences

• Recognition of intraethnic violence of violence against moderate coethnics

• Civilians are not merely bystander to armed conflict: intentional targeting

Valentino: Intentional Targeting of Civilians

• Insurgents coerce civilians into providing support

• Increase costs governments in the effort to extract concessions or to change policy

• Dependency on civilian populations for critical resources

• Killings due to lack of discipline

• Killing to stop the other side from fighting

• Clear territory to eliminate the threat of rebellion

Valentino: Elite motivations

• Motives of elites interact with environments

• Shift focus from issues of change to injustices by silencing those who pose the threat to the status quo

• Role of political ideas: communist terror

• But: not al violence against civilians is strategic

Developed Democracy

• All guarantee participation, competition, and liberty

• Stable political institutions (but: potential erosion of democracy)

• Diverse, wealthy economy (but: growing inequality)

• Sometimes called “first world”

Economic Dev in Dev Dems

• Small agricultural sectors

• Industrial sectors shrinking

• Service sectors growing

Variation in Dev Dems

Freedom and equality

• Personal liberties, ex. Abortion, expression

• Economic freedoms, ex. Prostitution, drugs

• Political participation, ex. Compulsory voting

Trends that may erode sovereignty of advanced states?

International integration and devolution

International integration

• Movement of state functions to international level

• Reduction in independent state capacity

• WTO, NAFTA, EU, MERCOSUR, ASEAN etc

Devolution

• Movement of state functions to local/regional level

• Reduction in independent state capacity independent or semi autonomous regions in Spain, UK, etc.

European Union

A group of European countries (Originally 6 Western European states, now 28), working together for economic and social cooperation.

• Originated after WW2, goal to prevent another European war

Different views of European Union

Intergovernmental cooperation

• EU is controlled by member states

• All major decisions made through negotiation among national leaders

Supranational institution

• EU is governed through EU institutions

• National governments are constrained by EU riles and procedures

Integration through crisis management

European Council

Heads of state or government

• Elects the EU President for 2.5 year term

• Sets the general political direction and priorities of the EU

European Commission

28 commissioners

• Has its own president chosen by the European Council

• Sets policy objectives, proposes legislation and managed the EU budget

European Parliament

751 directly elected members

• Passes legislation proposed by the commission

• Passes the budget for the EU

EU Court of Justice

One judge for each country

• Rules on EU law and conflicts between EU laws and national laws

• EU law supersedes national laws

World Trade Organization (WTO)

• Created in 1994 (follow up to GATT)

• Judicial process can rule on national laws

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)

• Trade policy set through international treaty

• Some environmental and labor standards

• Now: US, Mexico, Canada Agreement

Mercosur (Southern Common Market)

An economic and political agreement among Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, Venezuela and Brazil

Causes for devolution

• Improve representation of ethnic/linguistic minorities

• Bring citizens closer to decision making (engage citizens)

• Increase efficiency (varied results)

Post-material values

Contrast with ‘modern’ values

• Modern values: rationalism, industry

• Material values: individual consumption

Post-materialism

After basic needs met, concern for social ends

• Justice, environmental protection, culture

Identity Politics

Since WWII, accelerating ethnic change

• North African migrants to Western Europe (15%-20%mingrant)

• Latin American migrants to United States (13% immigrant)

• Asian migrants to Canada and Australia (25% immigrant)

Postindustrialism:

the shift from economic growth and employment in industry to growth and employment in services.

• Manufactured goods imported from newly industrializing countries

• Services account for more economic growth and exports

The welfare state:

Political challenges to social policy and redistribution, often attributed to globalization

Postindustrialism consequences

• Job losses in manufacturing sectors. Skills do not often transfer to growing sectors. Raises demands for trade barriers

• Greater inequality. Raises demands for income redistribution

Changes to the welfare state

Welfare States are becoming more expensive because of rising health care costs and an aging population. There are solutions, but are problematic:

• Higher taxes: Firms or wealthy individuals may leave the country to avoid taxes. Globalization may constrain state revenue.

• Lower benefits: Reducing health, education spending may undermine growth in the long run. Cutbacks may trigger public protests

• Technical fixes: requires effective political oversight.

Democratic Erosion

The gradual, often legalistic weakening of democratic institutions, norms, and accountability mechanisms. Emphasizes incremental change rather than abrupt breakdowns.

Key mechanisms of Democratic Erosion

• Executive aggrandizement (expanding power through legal reforms)

• Strategic harassment of opposition, media, and civil society

• Norm decay, esp. mutual toleration and institutional forbearance

• Polarization, esp. identity based politics, reduce cross-party trust, increase tolerance for anti-democratic actions

• Populism frames institutions as obstacles to “will of the people”

• Weak party systems and personalist leadership create openings for institutional manipulation

• State capacity and economic shocks shape vulnerability but do not determine outcomes

• Disinformation from digital information ecosystems

• Autocratization in established democracies: Erosion shown everywhere

• Legalism as tool of decline: Democratic backsliding in courts, constitutions, and electoral rules

• Subnational erosion: Local and regional govs can be early sites

• International dimensions: Autocratic diffusion, foreign influence, and weakened democratic conditionality reshape incentives

• Resilience research: growing attention to what prevents erosion- civil society, bureaucratic autonomy, and elite pacts

Communism

• Set of political ideas about class and politics, founded by Karl Marx

• Provides an explanation for how society operates. Includes theories about why economies grow, why people start revolutions, how economies and politics are linked.

• An ideology about how society should function.

Marxism

Central idea: two main groups of people in society:

• Working class “Proletariat”: People who produce value through labor, exploited by capitalists

• Capitalists “bourgeoise”: People who own ‘capital’, benefit from value created by worker

Marx’s Political Structure

Politics in a state happen at 2 levels:

• Base: Relations between classes, the technology of production

• Superstructure: Religion, government, nationalism. Serves to justify the base

The base is where the real politics happens, superstructure is mostly a distraction. Superstructure creates false consciousness.

Dialectical materialism

Dialectic:

• Struggle between existing order and revolution

• Conflict between thesis and antithesis

Materialism

• Key to change is material factors

• Who produces what? Who gets what?

Culture, religion, and nationalism are irrelevant

Marxism is dialectical materialism.

Communist Revolutions

Revolutions do not happen naturally, require:

• Revolutionary classes must gain consciousness

• Revolutionary vanguard leads revolt.

Vanguard of the Proletariat

Party that leads the communist revolution.

• Organized by small segment of society

• After revolution, party controls the country

• Nomenklatura: Party members in key posts

  • State functions: military, police, courts

  • Social functions: newspapers, schools

Economy under Communism

Economy is governed by central plans.

• State owns most factories, mines, and farms.

• Moscow sets quotas for production

• Workers earn guaranteed wage

• Education, employment guaranteed

Economic problems from central planning

• Impossible for government to plan effectively

• No incentive for individuals to produce more

Net result: corruption, shortages, inefficiency

Agricultural Collectivization

Result of governance under communism:

• End private ownership of farms

• Farmers instead work on community farms

• Leads to lower food production, less incentive

Religion and Communism

Repression of religion and other social institutions

• Marxist theory: religion is part of the “superstructure”, creating false consciousness

• Social institutions threaten party and state

Culture and communism

Communist USSR, China, and Cuba had large and active cinema industries.

• Censorship of political themes

• Large state subsidies for historical dramas

Perestroika (1986)

introduction of some market reforms in agriculture and industry, but struggled due to bureaucratic inflexibility

Glasnost (1988)

Bureaucratic reforms by making management and administration open to public debate. However, state apparatus resistant to chnage

Political Transitions

Soviet collapse unintended result of reforms

• Since 1990, most former Communist states gave seen economic growth and development

• Extent of economic growth depends on institutions and international economic integration

• Rising nationalism

• Religious freedom

Poland after communism

• Strong civic organizations, including “Solidarity” and the Catholic Church, mobilized against Communist Party during the Cold War.

• After 1990, leaders had frequent contact with Western Europe, and membership in Western institutions (EU, NATO) was conditioned on democracy.

• Integration with West led to strong economic development.

Russia after communism

• Civil society weak after Soviet repression

• Oil and natural gas wealth concentrated power, contributing to a resource curse

• Military strength reduced Russia’s exposure to international pressure

• Communist Party maintained control of civic organizations, effectively prevented organization of mass protest.

• Chinese CP adapted after the 1990s by including capitalists in the party, to guarantee its commitment to market-led economic growth.

• Rising living standards buy the Party time to continue consolidating control.