AP Psychology: Unit 0 - An Introduction to Psychological Science Practices with Key Terms and Definitions

The science of behavior & mental processes

Psychology

Perspective (theory) of psychology that views personality & behavior with a focus on the unconscious mind & the importance of childhood experience

Psychodynamic perspective

Perspective that focuses on the effects of learning on our personality development

Behavioral perspective

Perspective that views personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth

Humanistic perspective

Perspective that focuses on how our thought processes & decision making influences our personality

Cognitive perspective

The scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, & hormonal) & psychological processes

Biological perspective

The study of the evolution of behavior & the mind, using principles of natural selection

Evolutionary perspective

Perspective that studies how situations & cultures affect our behavior & thinking

Social-cultural perspective

Thinking that does not automatically accept arguments & conclusions; rather, it examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, & assesses conclusions

Critical thinking

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it (also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)

Hindsight bias

Scientific experts who evaluate a research article's theory, originality, & accuracy

Peer reviewers

An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations & predicts behaviors or events

Theory

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Hypothesis

The possibility that an idea, hypothesis, or theory can be disproven by observation or experiment

Falsifiable

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study; for example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures (also known as operationalization)

Operational definition

Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced

Replication

A non-experimental technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

Case study

A non-experimental technique of observing & recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate & control the situation

Naturalistic observation

Anything that can vary & is feasible & ethical to measure

Variable

A non-experimental measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, & thus of how well either factor predicts the other

Correlation

A statistical index of the relationship between two variables (from -1.00 to +1.00)

Correlation coefficient

A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables; the slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables; the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation)

Scatterplot

Perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship

Illusory correlation

The tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average

Regression toward the mean

A non-experimental statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion

Meta-analysis

A tool for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

Survey

Bias from people's responding in ways they presume a researcher expects or wishes

Social desirability bias

Bias when people report their behavior inaccurately

Self-report bias

A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

Sampling bias

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Random sample

All those in a group being studied, from which random samples can be drawn (Note: Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country's whole population)

Population

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable); by random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors

Experiment

In an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment - that is, to one version of the independent variable

Experimental group

In an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group & serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

Control group

Assigning participants to experimental & control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups

Random assignment

An experimental procedure in which the research participants are ignorant (blind) about whether they have received the treatment or a placebo

Single-blind procedure

An experimental procedure in which both the research participants & the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo; commonly used in drug-evaluation studies

Double-blind procedure

Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent

Placebo effect

In an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

Independent variable

In an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated

Dependent variable

In an experiment, a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study's result

Confounding variable

Bias caused when researchers may unintentionally influence results to confirm their own beliefs

Experimenter bias

The extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to

Validity

A research method that relies on quantifiable, numerical data

Quantitative research

A research method that relies on in-depth, narrative data that are not translated into numbers

Qualitative research

Giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

Informed consent

The post experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose & any deceptions, it its participants

Debriefing

Numerical data used to measure & describe characteristics of groups; include measures of central tendency & measures of variation

Descriptive statistics

A bar graph depicting a frequency distribution

Histogram

The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

Mode

The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores & then dividing by the number of scores

Mean

The middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it & half are below it

Median

A representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

Skewed distribution

The difference between the highest & lowest scores in a distribution

Range

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

Standard deviation

A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68% fall within one standard deviation of it) & fewer & fewer scores lie near the extremes (also called a normal distribution)

Normal curve

Numerical data that allow one to generalize - to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

Inferential statistics

A statistical statement of how likely it is that a result (such as a difference between samples) occurred by chance, assuming there is no difference between the populations being studied

Statistical significance

The strength of the relationship between two variables; the larger the effect size, the more one variable can be explained by the other

Effect size