BIOCHEMISTRY : MODULE 2

Carbohydrates

Plyhydroxy ketones (ketose) or polyhydroxy alehydes (aldose) or compounds that can be hydrolyzed from them.

Carbohydrates

Sometimes referred also as sugars

Complex Carbohydrates

Found in whole grains, legumes, and vegetables.

Complex Carbohydrates

They provide sustained energy and are rich in fiber/

Simple Carbohydrates

Found in fruits and processed foods.

Simple Carbohydrates

Natural sources like fruits are healthier than refined or sugary foods.

4 calories

One gram of carbohydrates provide ________ of energy.

Glycogen

Excess glucose is stored as ____ in the liver and muscles.

Glycogen.

Provides readily available energy reserve during fasting or intense physical activity.

Metabolism

Energy is released in _____.

Polysaccharides ; Cellulose

________ like ______ form the structural framework in plant cell walls.

Cellulose

Most abundant in nature, no nutritive value, forms the cell wall of plants.

Peptidoglycan

Found in the cell wall of bacteria.

Chitin

A carbohydrate polymer, and a key component of the exoskeletons of crustaceans.

Glycoproteins and Glycolipids

__________ and _______, which contain carbohydrates groups, contribute to the structure and function of cellular membranes.

Recognition Molecules ; Glycoproteins ; Glycolipids

________ : _______ and _______ act as a recognition sites in cell-cell interactions and immune.

Receptor Function

Carbohydrates moieties on proteins and lipids mediate interactions with hormones, pathogens, and other cells.

Storage and Transfer

Carbohydrates are part also essential for the ____ and _____ of genetic information.

Hyaluronic Acid ; Chondroitin

Polysaccharides like ________ and _______ are essential for joint lubrication and connective tissue integrity.

Hyaluronic Acid

Most abundant acid mucupolysaccharide found in connective tissue vitreous humor of eye, synovial fluid.

Interferon

• Antiviral Function

• Immune System should produce this to fight of infection

A, B, AB, and O

What are the four blood types?

3 ; 4 ; monosaccharides

Blood type is case on ____ or _____ _________ attached to a membrane protein of red blood cells.

Type O

N-acetyl-D-Glucosamine ; D-Galactose ; L - Fucose

Type A

acetyl-D-Glucosamine ; D-Galactose ; L - Fucose ; N-acetyl-D-gatactosamine

Type B

acetyl-D-Glucosamine ; D-Galactose ; L - Fucose ; D - Galactose

Type AB

acetyl-D-Glucosamine ; D-Galactose ; L - Fucose ; D - Galactose ; N-acetyl-D-Galactosamine

Clumps

Transfusion of the wrong blood type can cause blood cells to form _______, a potential fatal reaction.

Oligosaccharides

The biochemical basis for the various blood types involves ________ present on plasma membranes of red blood cells.

Heparin

• An Acidic Polysaccharides which is an anti-clotting agent present in the body

• Blood Anti-Coagulant

• Glycoprotein

• Glycolipid

• Proteoglycan

Conjugated Carbohydrates?

Cellulose

• Structural Polysaccharides of Plants

• Dietary Fiber

Starch

• Energy Storage in plants

• Energy source in human diet

Glycogen

• Energy storage in animal cells

Glycoprotein

Component of the cell surface coat and mucus among other roles

Glycolipid

Component of the cell surface coat

Proteoglycan

• Cell Adhesion

• Lubrication

• Supportive Filler of some tissues and organs

Monosaccharides

Simplest for mod sugars which cannot be further hydrolyzed

Monosaccharides

sweet tasting with varying relative sweetness

Monosaccharides

• Solids at room temp

• Polar compounds with high melting points

• very soluble in water

Pyranose

• Six membered ring resembling pyran

• aldohexoses

Furanose

• Five-membered ring resembling furan

• Ketohexoses and alsopentoses

Disaccharides

Polymer made up of 2 monosaccharides

Oligosaccharides

Polymers made up of 3-10 monosaccharides

Polysaccharides

Polymers with more than 10 monosaccharides units

• Homopolysaccharides

• Heteropolysaccharides

Types of polysaccharides

• Hyaluronic Acid

• Heparin

Heteropolysaccharides

• Starch

• Glycogen

• Dextrin

• Cellulose

• Dextran

• Inulin
  
  All made up of glucose except inulin (fructose)

Homopolysaccharides

• Sugar Acids

• Sugar Alcohols

• Amino Sugar

• Phosphorylated Sugar / Sugar Phosphate

• Deoxy Sugar

Derives Carbohydrates?

Dextrorotatory

An optical isomer that rotates the beam of polarized light to the RIGHT or CLOCKWISE.

Dextrorotatory

Indicated by a (+) sign or a small letter d-

ex: (+) glucose or d-glucose

Levorotatory

An optical isomer that rotates the beam od polarized light to the LEFT or COUNTER-CLOCKWISE.

Levorotatory

Indicated by a (-) sign or a small letter l-

Example:

(-) glucose or l-glucose

Polarimeter

Used to measure the optical rotation of the molecules in solution.

• Dextrorotatory

• Levorotatory

Optical Isomers?

D enantiomer

The enantiomer with the OH group on the right (dextro) side of the chiral carbon farthest from the carbonyl group.

L enantiomer

The enantiomer with the OH group on the left (levo) side of the chiral carbon farthest from the carbonyl group.

Chirality Centers

All carbohydrates have 1 or more _____.

2 possible enantiomers

Glycaraldehyde the simplest aldose, hase one chirality center and has _________.

Naturally occuring enantiomer

OH on the right?

Unnatural Enantiomer

OH on the left?

D isomers

Most biologically active monosaccharides are ______.

Alpha and Beta Anomers

Stereoisomer that differ in configuration around an anomeric carbon of a cyclic structure or ring structure.

ALPHA anomers

The OH is written below the anomeric carbon.

BETA anomers

The OH is written above the anomeric carbon.

Pyranose

the anomeric carbon is C-1 and is obtained by cyclization of an aldehyde and an alcohol group.

Furanose

the anomeric carbon is C-2 and is obtained by cyclization of a ketone and an alcohol group.

Epimers

stereoisomers that differ in configuration around a single carbon atom of a linear structure differ only in 1 carbon atom, using D-glucose as reference.

Epimers

two sugars which differs from one another only in the configuration around a single carbon atom.

Epimerase

D-glucose in the liver by a specific enzyme called ______.

Fishcher Projection

Straight chain or open chain structures.

Haworth Projection

ring or cyclic structures; hemiacetals or hemiketals.

Hemiacetal

The product of the addition of an alcohol to the carbonyl group of an aldehyde.

Hemiketal

The product of the addition of an alcohol to the carbonyl group of a ketone.

Stable Cyclic Hemiacetal

When the aldehyde and alcohol are on the same molecule _________ is formed.

new chirality center ; anomer

The C atom that is part of the hemiacetal is a _________, called the _______ carbon.

Newman Projection

boat and chair structures

rotate glucose 90°

The first step in cyclization is to _________.

five-membered rings ; two

Ketohexoses like fructose form ________ with _____ anomers.

C4 in pentoses ; C5 in hexoses

Exception to rule 3 occurs at _______ and at _______ because of the nature of the reaction occurring there.

oxidize ; Benedict’s Reagent

The aldehyde group is easily _______ to a carboxylic acid using _______ reagent.

Aldoses ; Ketones

_______ can be oxidized, while ______ cannot.

74.3

Sweetness level of Glucose?

Glucose

commercially known as DEXTROSE because it is mostly dextrorotatory

Insulin ; Glucagon

Glucose : Two hormones, ______ and _______, have important roles in keeping it within normal range.

Glucose

usually found in the bloodstream and in the tissue fluids thus known as blood sugar

Glucose

most important of all monosaccharide, an aldose

Glucose

Use as primary source of energy digesting by the cells

Glycogen ; Fat

Excess glucose is stored as the polycaccharide _______ or as _____.

Insulin ; Insulin

Patients with diabetes produce insufficient _______ to adequately regulate blood sugar levels, so they must monitor their diet and/or inject _______ daily

Diabetes Mellitus

Glucose found in the urine of patients suffering from _____.

70-110 mg/dL

Normal quantity of glucose present in blood taken after a period of fasting is _______.

Value of a NORMAL FASTIC BLOOD SUGAR

70-110 mg/dL

Glucose Tolerance Test

To evaluate blood glucose levels, a doctor may

order a _______.

12 Hours

The patient fasts for _______, and then a blood

sample is taken immediately

Hyperglycemia

the blood glucose exceeds 100mg/dL and

remains high

Diabetes Mellitus

An example of a disease that can cause hyperglycemia is ________.

Diabetes Mellitus

a metabolic disorder in which the body does not produce enough or respond normally to insulin, causing blood sugar (glucose) levels to be abnormally high

Diabetes Mellitus

Symptoms may include:

• increased urination

• increased thirst

• increased hunger,

• people may lose weight even if they are not trying to.

• heart attack

• stroke

• kidney failure

• blindness

• foot ulcers.

The complications of diabetes are?