Exam 2 ANTY 450

C.J Thomsen

C.J Thomsen

(1788-1865) Danish
Very interested in development of technology- Numismatics (study of coins)
Cataloging collections of the Danish museum got him interested in relative dating.
became aware of stylistic changes and their value for relative dating because he collected coins. (a widespread gentleman’s hobby).
First person to create a chronology using material culture.

Why doesn't a simple classification of stone, bronze, iron work on material culture in Scandinavia?

Metals were traded to scandinavia
Problem of assigning other materials (wood, gold, silver, glass, bone) and other substances to each period
Bronze and stone artifacts were being made well into the iron age, just as stone was used in the bronze age

What are "Closed finds" and why are they important?
-What is the process? Why is it significant?

Close Finds: Thomsen came up with the idea that artifacts found in the same grave, hoard, or in similar context were perceived to be from the same time period.
Process of Seriation (looking at conglomeration of sealed deposits
objects that were found in specific and recurring associations such as burials or hoards

What sorts of material classifications does Thomson come up with?

Created chronology by dividing prehistoric materials into successive ages of stone, bronze, and Iron (Three Age system). Problems with dividing what tools belonged in what era, so he divided them by their materials and their shape. Thomsen regarded the Three ages knowledge of bronze and Iron workings was introduced by successive waves of immigration, or a result of "intercourse with other nations).

*What is the larger significance of Thomsen's classification?

Close finds associated with his three age system helped him distinguish specific characteristics and association with different periods.

What is the role of the middle class through thomsen's classification?

viewing progress as universal, cutting edge, pride, and nationalism, "vanguard of modern history"

Is Thomsen's interest just in these relative chronologies?

Interested in how people used material culture.

S. Nillson and Scandinavian Archaeology

Coined the term prehistory
He was very interested in cultural evolution but unlike Thomsen was more interested in subsistence economies - unilineal evolution
Most important contribution - determined the uses made of stone and bone artifacts. First to flint-knap to explain prehistoric artifacts (middle range theory)
Increasing population had been principle in compelling Scandinavian hunter-gatherers to become first pastoralist herdsman and then agriculturalists

How does Steenstrup's work augment this?

Geologist used stratigraphic evidence of a prehistoric human presence in Scandinavia in the course of excavations he carried out- revealed patterns of forest change (post glacial aspens replaced in succession to pine,oak, and finally beech and elm.)
Excavated peat bogs in Denmark
Pine forests were associated with stone age occupation, oak forests with the bronze age, beech and elm forests with the iron age
Stone and bronze artifacts associated with oak period- tied evolution of culture and environmental history
Correlates thomas artifact sequence with environmental changes

Jens Worsaae

Became one of the first professional prehistoric archaeologists and was the first person to be train in the discipline - prolific field worker
<b>take away from Lee</b> We must be sensitive to the fact you can't take one chronology sequence and apply it to another
Produced general account of denmark's prehistory integrating thomas's findings with those of steenstrup and nilsson (validates denmark's national existence)

What else has this type of prehistoric archaeology successfully applied, and when ?

Inspired scottish antiquary Daniel Wilson (1816-1892) employs thomsen's three age system
Wilson inspired by this romanticism and nationalism
Not sure if he understood "close find" method and applied danish chronology to scottish data- viewed stone age as baseline for humanity
Coined the term prehistory and applied goals of prehistoric archaeology - economy, social status, religion, briefly introduced gender studies, etc
Understanding of past derived from stone artifacts alone differed greatly from written record
Call to reorganize british museum in accordance to three age system

What is the relationship between Scandinavian archeology and geology/ paleontology?

Geological time constructed by geologists and paleontologists
They were able to pull from geology and paleontology to explain paleo environments and prehistoric diets and reflected a romanticism/nationalist desire to know who had inhabited specific countries in prehistoric times and how they lived.

James Hutton

father of geology (late 1700s) Discovered Deep Time
Looked at rock formations - unconformity- a line separating two very different rock formations
Hutton challenged biblical view of creationism
"Time had no vestige of a beginning or end."

Siccar point

"deep geological past"
Existed 400 million yrs ago ancient ocean- eventually rocks mashed together- slow steady erosion- eventually ocean disappears- dryer climate- reveals huge gap in rock formations
Important place for geologists

Travertine?

white or light-colored calcareous terrestrial limestone rock deposited from mineral springs, used in building.

What are regional catastrophism and general catastrophism?
Georges Cuvier (1769-1832) regional catastrophism

regional natural catastrophes destroyed local species of animals and altered geological configurations of limited spaces. These devastated areas repopulated by migrating animals that were spared- species decline over time.

General Catastrophism

catastrophism is the theory that the Earth has largely been shaped by sudden, short-lived, violent events, possibly worldwide in scope.

What sorts of evidence is found by Perthes that questions these overly biblical interpretations?

Found stone tools and rhino bones together and believed they were equally old based on his stratigraphic observations. Because he was a catastrophist, he thought tools belonged to a race before modern humans, antediluvian toolmaking race that had been completely annihilated by a massive flood that occurred prior to the biblical deluge.

What are the concurrent developments in geology?

James Hutton/Charles Lyell - Uniformitarianism: Throughout time slow erosion of rock and soils was balanced by uplifting of land surfaces. Contrary to Catastrophism, it indicated the past to be a long and uninterrupted period, during which other events could have happened.

Why are biological and cultural evolution slow to catch on in England in the 19th century?

The concept of biological and cultural evolution had still been associated with radical politics in england and were anathema to the respected middle class. It wasn't until Herbert spencer encouraged people to adopt sociocultural evolution

What does Spencer offer that makes these more palatable?

Brought in the capitalist mindset of evolution, argued development of the universe moved from simple, uniform homogeneity to complex and differentiated entities.
Claimed individuality and free enterprise was the driving force behind cultural evolution

How is unilinear evolution at odds with Darwinian Evolution?

There are a lot of branches of evolution and there are a lot of options and only come into play when you have outside forces, whereas unilinear is a linear progression and suggests the end point.

What are the goals of Paleolithic archeology in france?

The principal goals of these studies were to determine how long human beings had been in the area and whether evolutionary trends could be detected within the paleolithic period.

What are the contributions of Laratet and de Mortillet?

Lartet Came about it from a paleolithic geo perspective and looked for index fossils.
They both created a chronology.
Lartet realized that the paleolitic was a series of phases destinguieshed by artifacts in association with prehistoric animals, so he created a classification system.
Mortillet distinguished paleolithic periods based on diagnostic artifacts.

How is Mortillet's work similar to that in Scandinavia?

Scandanavians were looking at chronology as well, based on closed finds.

How does French paleolithic archaeology differ from Scandinavia archaeology?

The French were able to access much older stuff so they had a deep time perspective of archeology, associative dating. Whereas in Scandinavia they did not have as much older stuff to look at as associative dating and they were looking at specific human groups of the past and their adaptation to prehistoric environments.

What is the myth of the Moundbuilders in North America?

Europeans saw huge earthworks and couldn't imagine native americans could produce that, so they decided an extinct race of people must have built them.

What social factors are important for the emergence of prehistoric archeology?

Racism- Both branches of Prehistoric archaeology revealed to be intellectual progress of the enlightenment era- middle class pwr was increasing from the industrial revolution. Euro americans were happy to share this view, but did not extend it to the indigenous peoples- with the perpetuated belief of biological inferiority.

What is the impact of the alignment of archeology and ethnology in Europe and the U.S? How is it different in each of these areas? /why do people look to ethnography?

Ethnography highlights differences between people. Idea is that on display at any given time is the entirety of human evolution, therefore there's no need to look into the past to ask questions of process. European perspective - you have the existence of ethnography, and if you wanted to understand cultural evolution you wouldn't need to look at the archeological record of the past. Northern American perspective: Assumption of little cultural evolution, no substantive change in native american populations, static what you see is what you get.

What is the obstacle faced by evolutionism? How is this explained?

explaining why some societies had remained static for thousands of years and others developed rapidly. Temperate climate was an explanation for cultural development. Environmental determinism.
Climate belts -

How did the ideas of enlightenment change in the 19th century?

encouragement of nationalism - get the population to invest in their own "stock"/"roots" they might embrace a social standing perspective/the status quo as opposed to looking for change
In place of enlightenment, conservatism encouraged a romantic celebration of national ethnic difference in the hope of diverting the middle classes from continuing to demand political and social reform.
Divert the middle class from demanding political reform.

What is the doctrine of polygenesis? How does this affect racial ideas?

a theory of human origins which posits the view that the human races are of different origins.
(Adam and eve) different scenarios and fundamental distinction.

Joseph Arther Comte de Gobineau

believed the fate of civilizations was determined be racial composition, more successful racial character was diluted... Believed superiority of Aryan race in Europeans. Warned that Germans could dominate others if they avoided misconception with inferior people, jews, celts, and slavs. Influence Adolf Hitler...

John Lubbock & his view on evolution impact racial ideas?

Believed natural selection, human groups had become so different from each other not only culturally but also in their biological capabilities. (less advanced people were more primitive in every way.)
Believed women were biologically inferior to men in intellectual and emotional capacity because they have been cared for and protected by men throughout history.
Stated the most primitive people were doomed to vanish as a result of the spread of civilization, and education could not save them because natural selection had failed to adapt biologically.
kin

What is the social impact of capitalism on evolutionary thinking? How do the ideas of the middle class fit into evolutionary ideas? What impact does Lubock have in the United states?

Lubbock provided Americans with Darwin's explanation for the inferiority of Native Americans

How does Trigger Refute Willey & Sabloff claims about the lack of concern with chronology in the Americas during the 19th century? (p. 179) What sort of emphasis is given to archeological materials at this time?

Claims:
Failure of any indigenous group to advance beyond the Stone Age
Lack of stratified sites
Lack of familiarity with techniques for deriving chronology in the absence of major technological change
Triggers rebuttal:
Does not agree with evidence. Low frequency of stratified sites among those in Europe during the 1900 century did not inhibit the use of simple forms of seriation to construct chronologies. Example: Shell mounds studied seriationally and stratigraphically
Evidence of local cultural change

How are Native American societies viewed in contrast to European societies?

Europe was able to create technologies that allowed them to impose their will onto their environments to change their cultural niches, whereas it was believed indigenous people's cultures had been reshaped by environmental demands and them remained static.

Why are archaeologists closely aligned with ethnologists in the U.S.?

Vanishing race theory- ethnography used to preserve remains of the "vanishing race" - promotes savagery and barbarism
The subtly is a big issue- process called historic approach- through ethnographic extrapolation to learn about the past- ethnographic present/observation
What trigger points out- lewis binford was aware the nunumete are not a plains population hunting bison- trigger said these cultures exist in these spaces and it doesn't matter if they're plains or arctic the process is the same

What is the negative side of the refutation of the Myth of the Moundbuilders?

found new racist explanations for the mound building technology to discredit native american technologies.
Either credit moundbuilders with possessing an advanced culture and deny they were indigenous OR to accept them as indigenous and then say they aren't advanced

Public archaeology vid - Good Morning America -
Hopewell Ceremonial site
Earthen works scattered through central Ohio

Earthen works scattered through central Ohio
Stigma- "piles of dirt"
Newark - Largest group of earthen enclosures in the world!
Utilized by traveling groups- not fully known
Points in the octagon line up with a moon cycle called the lunar standstill (octagon earthworks site)
Spiritual power shared sense of belief
Debates - aliens, venetians, disbelief indigenous people could have built them? Lost tribes of Israel - on the country club website
UNESCO recognition- inspires more conversation/visitation?
emphasis on public archaeology

Trentent gravels

an earlier state of lithic reduction, Deep time antiquity

How does personal bias affect the nature of archeological research?

you decide what's important, what you research

Rio Tinto Cave Video - Australia

Rio Tinto destroyed the caves for an iron mine - people tried to stop it, let down by government, heritage laws - people had to resign (accountability??)
Archeological dig after salvaged some archeology suggesting human activity 40,000 years ago
Compensation deal with owners (not finished), while committing to reconstruct the caves (??)

Great Zimbabwe Video

Colleagues say that Zimbabwe lies centrally along the trade route, but if great zimbabwe is providing too high of a tax then people will cut them out, and without finance/currency they disappeared
Great Zimbabwe was in between gold mining and gold buyers - perfect location - trade was the reason they were wealthy
Builders of the city Shona Speakers/ zimbabwe ancestors
The great enclosure/ heart of the city/ largest pre colonial structure in Africa/ wall in a great signifier of power/ Skilled masons
Valley of the dry bones/ cattle sustain the place/ a sign of status that only the wealthy ate and controlled.

What were the traditional views of the Australian aborigines?

Aboriginals were seen as extremely primitive and they were thought to be a society with unchanging people and technology
European/Australian folks' relationship was different - celebrating culture and art (Modern?) North America may be following suit

How were the stone ruins in Zimbabwe similar to the Moundbuilder Problem in the U.S? How have they been interpreted?

Failed to recognize indigenous africa's technological capabilities and instead white colonists determined that the ruins were made by europeans - as evidence of prehistoric white colonization in southern Africa.

Even when indigenous origins were supported, how were they negatively interpreted

Gertrude Caton Thompson & David Randall Maciver archaeologists - claimed Zimbabwe ruins were entirely of Bantu origin and date back to the christian era. In accordance with the low opinions of African cultures - Thompson claims Zimbabwe is poorly constructed so it couldn't have remained for thousands of years.
These opinions were accepted by the world archaeology community - unwelcome amongst european settlers in rhodesia and south Africa - amateaur archaeologists claimed the ruins were made by invaders, merchants, or metalworkers who were said to have come from middle east, India, or Indonesia
R. Hall (1909) published Prehistoric Rhodesia that refutes Maciver and Thomsens findings and made explicit the exclusion from Africans in Zimbabwe's past, perpetuating the idea of exotic origins that was kept alive after this point

Do the direct ancestors of a cultural tradition have the sole ability to interpret the archeological record?

Some nationalists have claimed that only black Africans have the moral right or cultural understanding necessary to interpret the ancient ruins of Zimbabwe and attempts have been made to provide new, and in this case Black African speculations.

Why are European Paleolithic terms used for African culture-histories? (pg 204)

Self-centered Europeans, idea that stagnation

Louis Leaky and Mary Leakey-

Both pioneered Paleolithic living-floor archaeology, and made the first early hominid finds in the primitive oldowan tool levels at Olduvai gorge.
Mary Leakey allowed people to look at behavior as it pertains to material culture.

What draws people to study the paleolithic period in Africa ?

ignored / understudied African archaic- doesn't fit the superlatives- dynamic space of adaptation
Beginning of where we came from - search for primate/neanderthal remains
Olduvai gorge - find early species types - European geologic type fossils associated w earliest humans - rush to discover

How is change accounted for among indigenous societies?

Indigenous Societies were assumed to be static even when evidence of change was noted in the archeological record.- it was linked to diffusionism and migration

How was colonialism archaeologically oriented?

Served to degenerate the indigenous populations that Europeans were seeking to dominate or replace by offering evidence that in prehistoric times they lacked development.
Closely aligned w/ ethnology that documented "primitive" condition of traditional native cultures - promoted indigenous peoples as primitive and unchanging/static which justified european colonization
Delayed prehistoric arch in places like australia because of the idea that archaeology would show little, if anything of the past

Why is cultural evolution popular among indigenous societies?

For the middle class in european 1800s it Justifies their economic and political ascendancy- privileged and intelligence seen as biologically immutable
Popularized the idea that indigenous cultures were static, and any change noted in the archaeological record was blamed on migrations rather than internal dynamicism - perpetuated by Lubbock
Saw diffusion and migration as important modes of change, but change in these ways deemed less creative rather than the societies seen as "centers to innovation" AKA Europe

Why is unilinear evolution problematic?

Coined by Lubbock - and earlier concept by Mortillet
Too dependent on ethnology and excuses racist views of superiority over certain societies.
Classified modern cultures arranged from simplest to greatest - claimed nothing of importance would be found in the archaeological record - only used to show that evolution had occurred at varying degrees and rates across the world
Claimed ethnographic evidence was all that they needed to understand prehistoric times and that archaeological data in the form of diagnostic artifacts was what they could use to determine how far a culture developed and modern cultures at that level of development would explain culture and behaviors associated w/ that culture

How is evolutionary archeology in Africa different from Scandinavian archeology?

Focusing too much on tools not culture, too simplistic to explain the development of various societies, unilineal evolutionists relied on racist views of human development - arguing that some people were more evolved than others. Limits archeology
Scandinavian archeologists - more interested in behavior, connecting artifacts to potential behavior

Why is the decline of evolutionary archeology celebrated?

Instead of a monolithic sequence in European archeology, we are allowing other societies to have their own agency and engage in lives and create archeology that would be interpreted for its own value.

Brick frogging

from Charles’ time team. Diagnostic term of bricks with grooves

Logical positivism

Logical Empiricism, is a theory of knowledge and language that requires empirical verifiability. Empirical verifiability defines knowledge as information that can be verified through replicable experiment. "prove it"- dr lee

What is Diffusion and why do Diffusion and migration seem to matter in its replacement in evolutionism?

a school of thought which prescribes that cultural traits and ideas spread from a central point of origin, influencing and transforming other cultures across the globe
Diffusion displaced the evolutionary approach to archeology, and people were disillusioned with the idea that progress was inherited because industrialism wasn't really working for everyone.
Fredrich Ratzel: believed innovation is extremely rare and that most things weren't invented more than once.
Example of diffusion: Eskimo making ivory chains copying whaling ships

How does independent development affect notion of progress - Franz Boas position of evolution:

Idea of cultural relativism:
Denied the existence of any universal standard to judge all cultures. Viewing cultures on their own terms, not from your own perspective.
Historical particularism :
"The things that happened that got a particular culture to its particular location in time can only be understood on the basis of their very specific cultural trajectory" (Craig, 2024)
Ethnocentrism: The idea that your own cultural values are that standard and gives you the right to judge other cultures.
Marvin Harris: is a material culture deminog "the only way to explain the past is to determine the successive inocradic diffusionary episodes that have shaped the development of each culture." - cultures are products of endless encounters - surrounded by others and different opportunities for exposure

Where does cultural historical practice take off, and what are the goals?

It takes off in Germany
Rudolf Virchow (1821-1902) who had become actively involved in archeological research in Germany. he advocated the incorporation of prehistoric archeology, along with physical anthropology and ethnology, into a comprehensive prehistoric anthropology. Together with his followers, eh sought to identify prehistoric cultures, to trace their origin and movements, and if possible to associate them with known peoples, often largely on the basis of pottery types, although grave types, settlements, and historical data were also considered

Gordon Childe

He created the Oasis theory: looking for origins of civilization not origins of complexity.... Most of his cultures were defined on a small number of diagnostic artifacts... homemade pottery and artifacts reflected local taste and were resistant to change. They were used for underlying ethnic groups.. They diffused from one group to the other.

O.G.S Crawford

Wrote (1925) "Man and his Past", The head of British aerial survey. discussed geographical methods for finding the origins, extent, and frontiers of cultures.
1927 - First editor/founder of Antiquity - international journal

What are the different emphasis in the archeology of Israel and Palestine? How are they different?

Palestine is very religious focused whereas israel is very much focused on its historical homeland roots and proving its right to their land.

What is the critical position of some modern Israeli Scholars?

It's an increasingly secular approach and more interested in old archeological materials that aren't focused on biblical times.

What is Boas's impact on C-H archeology in the U.S?

No specific grounding for the idea that archeological cultures are discreetly bounded units. He understands them but he doesn't talk about archeological cultures.

Pitt-Rivers

Spend a lot of money for excavations
Trenching ditches at right angles, leaving baulks (Chunk of sediment between units that are excavated, so keeping a memory of stratigraphy) to record stratigraphy, and carefully relating individual finds to their stratigraphic contexts
Principal goal of evolutionist Pitt Rivers was to understand the history of individual archeological sites.
Did arbitrary levels, had great notes and documentation, and had a need to publish his work.
He created museum exhibits that are generated and topical of a specific sites

Kroeber's contribution to the methods of archeology

"Dating items based off of frequency seriation
Observed archeological sites in New Mexico and noticed pot sherds differed in color combinations from one site to another-> collected them at different sites and worked out a historical sequence.

What is the significance of Bordes' approach to the Paleolithic of Europe?

Distinguished the description of artifact assemblages from that of the artifacts they contained and the description of artifact forms from the identification of the techniques that were used to produce them - Master of Flint Knapping, French, refined, well studied (Lol Lee)

Russian maritime region controversial - middle river adaptation

middle river culture - Lee rambled on in class this is the notes from it Russian Maritime Region and the Controversial "Middle River Adaptation"
-Very interested in looking at Thomsen's idea that seasonal variation of h-g might be associated with vastly different material remains (would be interpreted as different cultures/ethnicities)
Epic cabbage, epic growth, absolute crackerjack archeologist 🚨
Showed us early pottery -> Japanese archeology in the far east?
Japanese archaeology views that area as japanese - they inhabited the area before russians

What are the goals of Scandinavian archeology? (p. 136)

Scandinavian Prehistoric Archeologists sought to learn technologies and subsistence economies associated with prehistoric people, as well as the environments people had lived, their social life, and religious beliefs.

Varve

seasonal influx of deposits left in lakes of glacier sediment/snow/river systems runnoff
can be used to study natural chronology

Lus

Glacial Soil
deposited by wind, very fine and homogenous- workable w wood and stone tools

Aerial Archaeology

Written maps/ diagrams - book "Air survey and Archaeology" - O.G.S Crawford
Aerial reconnaissance for archeological research first recognized during WWI, Crawford started making maps for military use.
Ability to see the world in a different way: Airplanes and aerial photography in the 1920's.
Trying to understand archeology from only one angle, whereas, aerial archeology allows you to see it from multiple perspectives.

Historical Paritcularism

The idea is a big component of Boasian anthropology because it is where Boasians put their focus when studying cultures.

Developed in contrast to Boas' rejection of Lewis Henry Morgan's idea of an evolutionary path and the use of the comparative method. The evolutionary path used generalities and universal themes to explain cultural similarities, but Boas "contended that cultural traits first must be explained in terms of specific cultural contexts rather than by broad reference to general evolutionary trends.

Video on aerial archaeology:

Crawford - (1927) First editor/founder of Antiquity - international journal
Aerial reconnaissance for archeological research first recognized during WWI, Crawford started making maps for military use - made book: Air Survey and Archeology with maps and diagrams
Charles Lindbergh's contribution - Saw mayan ruins, photographed known sites and discovered more
Analogie: Trying to understand the archeological record is like looking at an oriel rug and trying to decipher the pattern from only one edge: from only one angle, whereas, aerial archeology allows you to see it from multiple perspectives.

Problem with the cultural historical approach

Focuses way too much on diffusion and migration". Doesn't come up with new stuff. Once somebody invents something - the other person doesn't and that means you had to have learned it. Root is the middle-east

What is the advantage of functional and processual approach? (314) What do Processual approaches emphasize? What do Functional approaches emphasize?

Processual approaches: seek to understand how and why such systems change.
Functional approaches: trying to understand social and cultural systems from the inside by determining how different parts of these systems are interrelated and how these parts interact with one another.

Emile Durkheim:

-Viewed societies as systems made up of interdependent parts. Argued that the objective of social science studies was to understand social relations and that the explanation of all social processes should be sought in the internal constitution of human groups
- No change could occur in one part of a social system without bringing about varying degrees of change in other parts.
- Durkheim sociology is of interest among archaeologists on how prehistoric cultures functioned as systems.
Two types of solidarity: work for and reflect different community structure
Mechanical Solidarity: the type of social bond that exists in pre-industrial societies
Organic Solidarity: a state in which members of industrial societies integrate through the interdependence of all individuals.

Karl Marx:

-Class conflict and modes of production.
-The mode of production and material life determines the general character of the social and political and intellectual processes of life that is not the consciousness of humans that determines its existence it is on the contrary their social existence that determines their consciousness.

(marx) The basic principles on which he based his analyzes of society in the preface to his Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (1859):

Forces of production: Embracing not only all forms of technology but also all utilized resources, human and nonhuman, and all scientific knowledge.
The mode of production:
- believed in the considerable power of individuals to evaluate their material self-interest rationally and to unite in collective action to modify existing conditions in their own interests and those of their class.

Overview of Chapter 7: Early Functional Processual Archaeology
Soviet Archeology

Initially:
- Use of C-H approach and establishment of museums and regional societies
-Developed a marxist approach stressing technology.
Change:
-cultural revolution 1928
-aligns intellectual life with marxist philosophy.
-Cuts off soviet scholars with the outside world.

Processual Archaeology vs
Soviet Archeology

Comparison:
-In some ways the Soviet approach was ahead of Europe (explaining change in terms of social factors rather than migration and diffusion.
But behind Europe with its dismissal of typologies and culture histories (its hard to make sense of the archaeological record without these ) and having to force explanations into an ideologically appropriate form.

Gordon Childe

borrows elements of Soviet archeology (internal change, cultural evolution) but rejects the programmatic statement of Soviet unilinear evolution.
Limitation of his work-not able to link theories to fieldwork; doesn't have students that carry on his work (also work was difficult to understand).lacked widespread appeal.

Importance of Graham Clark

makes field work innovations to go along w theoretical perspective (part was that was missing from Childes work) - influences by social anthropologist notions of culture systems - views internal change due to ecology and economy

Walter Taylor

advocate of the conjunctive approach (borrow elements of ecological and environmental approaches used in Europe but melds them with boasian anthropology ( ideational psychological orientation)- this is not the same as the New Archeology

Walter Taylors weakness

fails to garner support from archaeological peers, attacks the old guard; can't explain how or why cultural change occurs.

Julian Steward

associated with ecological and settlements archeology.
Rise of interdisciplinary research programs in 1940s and 50s (braidwood, macneish)

Gordon willey

settlement archaeology - survey not just to find sites to excavate but to use settlement pattern data as source of human behavior

Key development from soviet section in class lec

nables archaeologist enables archaeologists to look at sites both synchronically (single point in time) and diachronically (how cultures change) continue to move away from cultural historical emphasis on ethnicity
Move to behavior over culture
Are these sort of universal processes? Archaeological record can be reproducible - human generated behaviors should be played out again and again

Cultural Relativism -

The idea that a person's activities or beliefs should be understood in the terms and values of their own culture, not someone else's.
Brought attention to the problem of Ethnocentrism; which is the belief that one's own culture is more valuable or better than another. Ethnocentrism leads us to make premature judgments about a culture and the people that are a part of that culture.
Led to the formation of ethnology.