WHIB Turkey, Iran, & Egypt

State of Turkey after WWI

State of Turkey after WWI

Allies controlled Istanbul and controlled the sultan. OE had little money and was under western control.

What was unpopular about Treaty of Sevres?

• Western control of the treasury

• Kurdistan and Armenia

• Limited self-determination

Kemal’s Rise to Power

War hero in war against Greeks, then set up alternate government.

Kemal’s Delegitimization of the Sultan

• Emphasized that the sultan signed Treaty of Sevres

• Create alternate government in Ankara

What do Kemal’s 6 Arrows serve as?

The core principles of his planned secular constitutional republic.

List the Six Arrows

1. Reformism/Revolutionalism

2. Republicanism

3. Secularism

4. Nationalism

5. Populism

6. Statism

Reformism/Revolutionalism in Turkey

• Restricted clothing to western styles

• Women’s suffrage - Turkish Women’s Union

• Single national ideology

• Mandatory schooling

• Switched to western alphabet

• Calendar changes

Turkish Women’s Union

• Formed by Ataturk in 1924

• Women could vote in municipal elections in 1930

• National elections in 1934

• Dissolved in 1935, claimed that women had achieved equality

• Women are still underrepresented in judicial positions and in literacy

Schooling Changes in Turkey

• Became mandatory

• 1934: History of the Turkish Revolution becomes a mandatory subject

Calendar Changes in Turkey

• Switched to Gregorian calendar

• Sundays became day of rest (instead of Fridays)

Republicanism in Turkey

• Kemal proclaimed president

• Capital moved to Ankara

• Civil liberties restricted

• 1924: New constitution

  • Elected Grand National Assembly

• 1925: Republican People’s Party created

• 1925: The Law of Maintenance of Order passed

• 1930: Free Republican Party created and shut down

• 1931: New law restricted press freedom

Grand National Assembly & Other Offices

• Grand National Assembly (GNA) was the parliament

• GNA elected president

• President selected prime minister

Republican People’s Party

State-sponsored Turkish political party. Was the one party in Turkey’s one party system.

The Law of Maintenance of Order

1925 Turkish law used to crack down on Kurdish rebels and dissent within the party. Repealed 1929.

Free Republican Party

1930 opposition party in Turkey created with Ataturk’s approval. Shut down several months after creation due to being too successful in elections.

Ataturk’s Full Name

Mustafa Kemal Ataturk

Secularism in Turkey

• 1924: Caliphate abolished, Ministry of Religious Endowments closed and assets seized by the state, religious schools shut down

• 1926: Islamic courts replaced by civil courts

• 1928: Turkey removed as official religion

• Call to prayer now in Turkish

• Polygamy banned

Nationalism in Turkey

• 1925: Turkish Historical Society founded

• 1926: Ataturk’s memoirs published

• 1927: Ataturk gives a notable speech

• 1934: History of the Turkish Revolution becomes a mandatory subject in school

• 1934: Kemal becomes Ataturk - “Father of the Turks”

• Promoted Ataturk’s cult of personality

Turkish Historical Society

Promoted Ataturk and pre-Islam Turkish history

Ataturk’s Memoirs and 1927 Speech

• Stressed his role in the revolution

• Cast former colleagues as incompetent

Populism in Turkey

• Turkish Hearth Movement

• People’s Homes & People’s Rooms

Turkish Hearth Movement

Ministry of Education-sponsored talks spreading nationalism

People’s Homes/Rooms

Replaced Hearth Movement in 1932. Community and recreation centers that promoted nationalism.

Statism

• Aimed to strengthen the state

• Centralized economic planning

Turkey’s Foreign Relations

• Traded Mosul for oil royalties

• Promoted domestic sovereignty over expansion

• Non-aggression pact w/ USSR

• 1932: Joined League of Nations

• 1936: Began supervising Dardanelle Straits

• 1937: Saadabad Pact

Saadabad Pact or Treaty of Saadabad

1937 non-aggression pact between Turkey, Iraq, Iran, and Afghanistan

Signatories to the Saadabad Pact

Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan

Anglo-Persian Agreement

1919 “agreement” by the British to the Majilis (Iranian parliament), who never ratified it. Effects include:

• Persia becomes British protectorate

• Britain controls finance, military, economy, and government

How did Reza Shah gain power?

• Was a military leader

• Led bloodless coup

  • Forced shah to make him Commander in Chief and Minister of Defense

How did Reza Shah consolidate his power?

• Merged regional armies into a single army

• Personally led fight against separatists to become war hero

The Ulema

Muslim clerics in Iran

Reza Shah’s Challenges

• Traditionalist Ulema

• Power was concentrated amongst landowners

• Middle class expected civil liberties

Iran’s Foreign Relations

• Rejected Russian influence

• UK was setback after Anglo-Persian Agreement was rejected

• Third Power Policy

• Renegotiated D’Arcy Oil Concession

D’Arcy Oil Concession

1901 agreement between Britain and Iranian shah. Gave GB control of oil, but shah got 16% royalty.

Renegotiation of D’Arcy Oil Concession

• Increased royalty to 20%

• Extended for 60 years

Third Power Policy

Iran sought the backing of a non-UK and non-Russia foreign power, such as France or the US.

Compulsory Military Service Law

Iranian law mandating 2 years of military service. Originally exempted theology students to gain support of the Ulema, but this exemption was later removed.

Military in Iran

• Sent soldiers to France for training and brought in French instructors

• Took 1/3 of budget

• Provided social mobility

• Compulsory Military Service Law

Reza Shah’s Relations with the Ulema

• Initially non-hostile (see Compulsory Military Service Law)

• Later more hostile

  • Banned turban and veil

  • Directly tried to offend Ulema

• 1927: Ministry of Justice created

Iranian Ministry of Justice

Created in 1927. Took most of the Islamic courts’ power.

Ataturk vs. Reza Shah

Similarities:

• Military background

• War heroes

• Limited civil liberties

• Censored media

• Rejected foreign influence

• Notable treaties:

  • Treaty of Sevres for Ataturk

  • Anglo-Persian Agreement for Reza Shah

• Both planned a republic

• Both dictators

Differences:

• Reza Shah sought some foreign support

• Reza Shah created a monarchy

• Ataturk created a republic

Notable Iranian Dynasties

• Qajars - Before Reza Shah

• Pahlavi - Founded by Reza Shah

Iranian Government Structure

Intended to be a republic, but Ulema forced it to remain a monarchy.

Iran Meaning

Land of the Aryans - was the pre-Islam name

British Motivation to Control Iran

Oil, proximity to India

Russian Motivation to Control Iran

Warm water port

Constitutional Revolution

• 1906 revolution in Iran.

• Established Majilis (parliament)

• Divided between the Ulema and anti-monarchist liberals

• Shut down in 1907 by the shah

Anglo-Russian Treaty

GB and Russia agree to divide Iran

• Russia gets north

• GB gets south

• Neutral zone in middle

WWI in Iran

• Iran was neutral

• Occupied by OE, GB, and Russia

• Economy destroyed

Persian Language Academy

Attempted to remove Arabic words from Persian.

Education in Iran

• Sent some students to western nations

• Promoted literacy

• Opened Tehran University to women in 1934

Bank Melli Iran

National bank of Iran. Created under Reza Shah

Currency Printing in Iran

Originally by the British Imperial Bank, but done in-house under Reza Shah.

Trans-Iranian Railway

Started in 1927 and finished in 1936. Connected the Persian Gulf to the Caspian Sea.

Name Changes in Iran

People forced to take surnames under Reza Shah.

End of Reza Shah’s Rule

• 1941: Refused passage to Allied armies

• Allies occupied Iran

• Sent Reza Shah into exile

• Put Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (Reza Shah’s son) on the throne

Iranian Revolution

1979 revolution against Mohammad Reza Pahlavi by the Ulema.

Leader of the Iranian Revolution

Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini

Egypt Pre-WWI

• Technically part of OE

• Veiled protectorate (VP) under British

• Ruled by an Ottoman Khedive and British administration

British Misc. Policies in VP

• British managed canal zone

• Egyptian army with British officers

• Often promised to leave

• GB controlled finance and military

British Agricultural Policies in VP

• Created drainage and irrigation

• Switched to cotton

British Financial Policies in VP

• Rectified debt

• Taxed fellahin, not the wealthy landowners (who supported the British)

Fellahin

Common farmers in Egypt

Events Leading to Conflict Between Egyptians and British

• Denshawai incident

• Assassination of prime minister by a nationalist student

Denshawai Incident

1906 incident where local hunters accidently shot a British officer. 4 fellahin were hanged and many more were imprisoned or whipped. Galvanized supporters of independence.

WWI in Egypt

• GB declared Egypt a protectorate

• GB concerned about propaganda and attack on Suez Canal

• Egyptian Expeditionary Force

• 500,000 conscripted

Suez Canal

• Opened 1869

• Connected Europe to India

• Funded with money borrowed from GB and FR

  • Egyptians couldn't pay back loans, so GB takes over and creates the Veiled Protectorate

1913 GB Changes in Egypt

• Granted constitution

• Granted representation in parliament

People’s Party

• 1907

• British must leave

• Egypt needs reform

• Islamic

• Religious, conservative, anti-Europe

• “Extremist”

Umma Party

• Led by Mahmud Sulayman Pasha

• Pro-independence

• Self-rule by reform and civic participation

• Expand role of Egyptians in government

• Cooperate w/ GB

• More moderate

Mahmud Sulayman Pasha

Leader of the Umma Party

People’s Party vs. Umma Party

Umma Party is more moderate, People’s Party is seen as extremist

How many Egyptians were conscripted for WWI?

500,000

Egyptian Expeditionary Force

Labor corps for GB that worked in Syria and Palestine

Wafd Party

Egyptian pro-independence party founded in 1919

Sa’ad Zaghlul

Founder of the Wafd Party. Exiled to Malta, but later returned.

February 4th Incident

GB forced King Farouk to install the Wafd Party as the government, thereby delegitimizing the Wafd Party.

Post-1922 Egyptian Kings

1. Faud

2. Farouk

3. Baby Faud

King Faud

Earlier king of Egypt. Had disputes with parliament.

King Farouk

Later king of Egypt. Had numerous personal problems. Attempted to resist GB in Feb 4th incident but was forced to abdicate.

Effects of WWII on Egypt

• Egypt intended to side with the Axis, so GB took control

• GB remained in Suez Canal, leading to war with Egypt

Islamic Brotherhood

• Nationalist group

• Founded 1928

• Pan-Islamism

• Gained popularity during the 1948-49 Arab-Israeli War

Hassan al Banna

Founder of the Islamic Brotherhood

Free Officers

• Nationalist group

• Founded 1949

• Took power in 1952 coup

Egyptian Nationalist Groups

• Wafd Party

• Islamic Brotherhood

• Free Officers